Pharmacognasy
Syllabus
(As per ER 2020)
Pharmacognosy
Definition, history, present status and scope of pharmacognosy.
Classification of drugs: Alphabetical, Taxononical Morphological, Pharmacological, Chemical, Chemotaxonomical.
Quality control of crude drugs: Different methods of adulteration of crude drugs, evaluation of crude drugs.
Brief outline of occurrence distribution, isolation, identification tests, therapeutic activity and pharmaceutical applications of alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, volatile oils, tannins and resins.
Biological source chemical constituents and therapeutic efficacy of the following categories of crude drugs.
Laxatives—Aloes, Castor oil, Ispaghula, Senna.
Cardiotonics—Digitalis, Arjuna, Squill.
Carminatives and GIT regulators—Coriander, Fennel, Cardamom, Ginger, Clove, Black peper, Asfoetida Nutmeg, Cinnamon.
Astringent—Myrobalan, Black catechu, Pale catechu, Galls.
Drugs acting on nervous system—Hyoscyamus, Belladonna, Ephedra, Opium, Tea leaves, Coffee seeds, Coca, Ashwagndha.
Anti-hypertensive—Rauwolfia
Anti-tussives—Tolu balsam, Vasaka, Tulsi
Anti-rheumatics—Colchicum seed, Guggul
Anti-tumor—Vinca, Podophyllum
Anti-leprotics—Chaulmoogra oil
Anti-diabetics—Pterocarpus, Gymnema
Diuretics—Gokhru, Punarnava
viii Pharmacognosy
Anti-dysenterics—Ipecacunha
Antiseptics and disinfectants—Benzoin, Myrrh, Neem,
Turmeric
Antimalarials—Cinchona, Artemisia
Oxytocics—Ergot
Vitamins—Cod liver oil, Shark liver oil
Enzymes—Papaya, Diastase, Pancreatin, yeast
Phamaceutical Aids—Kaolin, Lanolin, Beeswax, Acacia, Tragacanth, Sodium alginate, Agar, Guar gum, Gelatin.
Miscellaneous—Squill, Galls, Pale Catechu Ashw-gandha, Vasaka, Tulsi, Guggul
Plant fibers used as surgical dressing: Cotton, Silk, Wool and Regenerated fibers, Sutures—Surgical Catgut and ligatures.
a. Basic principles involved in the alternative system of medicine like: Ayurveda, Sidhha, Unani and Homeopathy
b. Method of preparation of Ayurvedic formulations like: Arita, Asava, Gutka, Taila, Churna, Lehya and Bhasma.
Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in national economy and their export potential.
Herbs as health food: Brief introduction and therapeutic applications of: Nutraceuticals, Antioxidants, Probiotics, Prebiotics, Dietary fibers, Omega-3-fatty acids, spirulina, Carotenoids, Soya and Garlic.
Herbal cosmetics: Sources, chemical constituents, commercial preparations, therapeutic and cosmetic uses of: Aloevera gel, Almond oil, Lavender oil, Olive oil, Rosemary Oil, Sandalwood oil.
Phytochemical investigation of durgs.
Preface to the Fourth Edition v
Pharmacological Grouping of Natural Drugs 58
Antiseptics and disinfectants 86
x Pharmacognosy
Basic Principles Involved in the Alternative 109
Systems of Medicines (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Homeopathy)
History and Scope of Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy: Pharmacognosy is defined as a systematic and scientific study of structural, physical, chemical and biological characters of crude drugs including the study of their history, cultivation, collection and preparation for market.
Laxatives/purgatives: The drugs which promote defaecation are called laxatives, e.g. castor oil, senna, rhubarb, aloes, ispaghula.
Cardiotonics: The drugs which increase the force of cardiac muscles and stimulate the activity of heart are called cardiotonics,
e.g. digitalis, arjuna.
Carminatives: The drugs which expel the gases from GIT by increasing peristalsis are called carminatives, e.g. fennel, coriander, cardamom, ginger, clove, cinnamon, clove.
Astringents: The drugs which cause precipitation of superficial proteins are called astringents, e.g. black catechu, pale catechu.
Analeptics: The drugs which stimulate the central nervous system are known as analeptics or CNS stimulant, e.g. nux vomica, lobeline.
Antihypertensives: The drugs which reduce elevated blood pressure to the normal level are called antihypertensive, e.g. rauwolfia.
Antitussives: The drugs which are used in the treatment of cough are called antitussives/anticough agents, e.g. vasaka, tulsi, tolu balsam.
Antirheumatics: The drugs which are used in the treatment of rheumatism are called antirheumatics, e.g. guggul, colchicum.
Antitumour/anticancer agents: The drugs which are used in the treatment of cancer are called anticancer agents/drugs, e.g. vinca.
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Antileprotics: The drugs which are used in the treatment of leprosy are called antileprotic drugs, e.g. chaulmoogra oil.
Antidiabetics/hypoglycemic agents: The drugs which are used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus are known as antidiabetic drugs, e.g. gymnema, pterocaprus.
Diuretics: The drugs which increase the formation and excretion of urine are called diuretics, e.g. gokharu, punarnava.
Antiseptics: The drugs which kill the microbes when applied to living tissues are called antiseptics, e.g. benzoin, neem, myrrh, curcuma, turmeric.
Disinfectants: The drugs which kill the bacteria and their spore when applied to nonliving tissue are called disinfectants, e.g. benzoin, myrrh, neem, curcuma, turmeric.
Antimalarials: The drugs which are used in the treatment of malaria are called antimalarial agents, e.g. cinchona.
Oxytocics/Ecbolics: The drugs which stimulate the uterine contraction and expel the contents of uterus are called oxytocics,
e.g. ergot.
Vitamin: Vitamins are organic substances present in small amounts in natural foodstuffs and are essential for growth of body and normal metabolism, e.g. shark liver oil (vitamin A), amla (vitamin C).
Enzymes: Enzymes are the protein substances which catalyse various biochemical reactions, e.g. papain, diastase, yeast.
Perfumes: These are the substances made from natural or synthetic materials which are used for creating a pleasant odour,
e.g. rose, jasmine, sandalwood, citronella.
Flavouring agents: These are the agents used to give a pleasant flavour to the formulation, e.g. peppermint oil, lemon oil, orange oil, lemon grass oil.
Pharmaceutical aids: The substances which are of little or no therapeutic value but are essentially used in the manufacture of or compounding of various pharmaceutical products are known as pharmaceutical aids, e.g. honey, starch, acacia, gelatin.
Crude drug: It means the drugs occurring in natural forms.
Source of crude drug: Crude drugs are obtained from plant, animals or minerals which are known as source of crude drugs.
Organised drugs: The drugs which have a definite cellular structures are called organised drugs, e.g. fennel, cinchona.
Unorganised drugs: The drugs which do not show a definite cellular structure are called unorganised drugs, e.g. acacia, tragacanth.
Aphrodisiac: The agents which stimulate the sexual desire are called aphrodisiacs, e.g. gokharu.
Technical products: The drugs from natural sources which are used in the industries like food industries are called technical products, e.g. ginger, cardamom, caraway.
Technical use: The use of drug other than pharmacological use is called technical use.
Substitute: Substitutes are the drugs having less percentage of active constituents and are added to the genuine drug.
Adulterants: Adulterants are the substances purposefully added in original drug to increase profit in marketing and they look similar to original drug but do not contain any active chemical constituent.
Barks: Barks are the external tissues of stem.
Fracture: The transverse broken surface of the bark is known as fracture.
Balsams: The oleoresins which contain benzoic acid or cinnamic acids are termed balsams, e.g. balsam of Tolu, balsam of Peru, storax, benzoin.
Sialogogue: The drugs which increase the secretion of saliva are called sialogogue, e.g. tobacco.
Galactogogue: The drug which increases the secretion of milk are called galactogogue, e.g. shatavari.
Cholagogue: The drug which increases secretion of bile, e.g. turmeric.
Hydrogogue: The drugs which promote watery evacuation of the bowel are called hydrogogue, e.g. jalap, calomel.
Emmenagogue: The substances which stimulate the menstrual flow are called emmenagogue.
Stomachics: The substances which increase the secretion of gastric juice and the functional activity of stomach are called stomachics, e.g. dill, fennel, coriander, gentian.
Q 1. How following scientists contributed in development of pharmacognosy?
Galen
He was a Greek scientist.
He found method of extraction.
He developed “galenical pharmacy”.
Galenicals prepared are decoction, infusion.
Seydler
Seydler coined the term pharmacognosy
He was a German scientist.
He wrote the book Pharmacognostica Gignostica.
When he was a student, he published his thesis on “Sarspirella”. The title of this thesis was “Analecta Pharmacognostica”.
He introduced the term “pharmacognosy” from two words:
‘Pharmakon’ means a drug
‘Gnosis’ means knowledge of.
He explained the term as “knowledge of drugs”.
Dioscoride
He was a Greek physician.
He described several plants of medicinal importance.
His book is De Materia Medica.
Materia medica is the text in which all natural products utilized by physicians were compiled together to form materia medica giving their detailed information.
Hippocrates
He was a Greek physician.
He is known as “father of medicine”.
He has contributed to pharmacognosy by his study on “anatomy and physiology of human beings”.
Aristotle
He was a Greek philosopher.
He explained his theory as the “Origin of Universe”, the sun and earth.
He studied the animal kingdom.
He suggested the principle of classification of animals.
Sushruta
He was an Indian surgeon and physician.
He knew about 1500 drugs.
He used to operate GIT.
His collection is named “Sushruta Samhita”.
Charak
He was an Indian physician.
He knew about 700 drugs.
The drugs were obtained from plants and minerals.
His collection is named “Charak Samhita.”
Scientists
Contribution
Extraction method “Pharmacognostica Gignostica” “De Materia Medica”
“Father of Medicine”
“Animal kingdom”/classification of animals.
Galen
Seydler
Dioscoride
Hippocrate
Aristotle
Q 2. Give the scope of pharmacognosy. Explain history of pharmacognosy.
Scope of Pharmacognosy
To provide knowledge of the natural plant and animal drugs.
To provide knowledge of active constituents of drugs.
To understand identification, extraction, purification, standardization and formulation of drugs.
To find out adulteration in the drugs.
Knowledge of pharmacognosy is useful in production of spices, cereals, paper, fabrics, paints, and also Bekari productions.
History of Pharmacognosy
In Papyrus Ebers, an old documents, written in 1500 BC, Egyptions were aware of medicinal uses of several plants and animals and human anatomy also.
The great Greek physician “Hippocrates” known “father of medicine” studied the human anatomy and physiology.
Aristotle philosopher is well known for his studies on “animal kingdom”.
Theophrastus is well known for study on “plant kingdom”.
Dioscoride, a Greek physician, described several plants of medicinal importance in “De Materia Medica”.
Galen, a Greek scientist, described the method of extraction of active constituent of crude drugs.
Seydler, a German scientist, coined the term pharmacognosy in 1815 in his work entitled “Analecta Pharmacognostica”.
Q3. Write a note on “present status and future prospects of pharmacognosy.”
Pharmacognosy is concerned with the study of crude drugs of vegetable and animal origins.
Plants are still a potent source of therapeutic agents.
Now the people have realized the utility of drugs from natural origin which are not only economical but also very safer too and also easily available.
All over the world the demand of herbal drug is increased tremendously.
About 80% of the world population depends on crude drugs.
Medicinal plants are of great value in the field of treatment and cure of diseases.
It has been universally accepted fact that the plant drugs and remedies are found more safer than synthetic medicines for curing most of the complex diseases.
In western world, as people are becoming aware of the potency and side effect of the synthetic drugs. Thus there is an increasing interest in the plant-based remedies with a basic approach towards nature.
Active constituents from plant sources have lead to rapid developments in pharmacognosy and phytochemistry.
Modern pharmacognosy has been developed rapidly due to the improvement made in the technology of isolation processes such as column, paper, thin layer, gas–liquid chromatographic procedures.
Availability of modern state-of-the-art facility like structure determination and pharmacological screening helps to improve status of pharmacognosy.
Rapid developments in the field of chemistry, biochemistry and pharmacology have further supported advancements in pharmacognosy.
Q 1. What is the need/importance of classification of crude drugs?/ Why the drugs are classified?/Give the object of classification of drugs.
Need of Classification
It makes a simple study of drugs.
Easy to study and remember properties of group of drugs.
It saves the time.
It is useful for effective use of knowledge.
Huge number of drugs are in nature, it is very difficult to study
them separately.
It gives correct and accurate information about the drug.
To help in practical work.
Q 2. Enlist/name/state/give various methods/systems of classification of crude drugs.
Alphabetical method.
Taxonomical method.
Morphological method/organoleptic method.
Chemical method.
Pharmacological method.
Chemotaxonomical method.
As per source.
As per nature of drugs.
Q 3. Explain alphabetical method of classification of drugs.
Alphabetical Method
In this method, the drugs are mentioned alphabetically. This method is commonly used in preparing universal, official reference books.
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Merits
Useful method for books such as BP, BPC, USP, IP.
Simple method.
Location and tracing of drug is easy.
Addition of drug is easy.
No technical person is required for handling the system.
Demerits
Original source is not clear by this classification.
Scientific nature of drug cannot be identified by this method, whether the drug is organised or unorganised.
Q 4. Write in brief about toxonomical method of classification of drugs.
Taxonomical Method
This is a botanical type of classification.
It is applicable to living organisms only (drugs obtained from plant, animals and microorganisms).
Taxonomy helps in systematic classification of living organisms.
In this method various steps are taken for proper classification.
Each step indicates certain characters:
Kingdom
Subkingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Subclass
Division
Order
Family
Genus
Species.
Merits
It helps in determining scientific name of living organism.
It explains some characters of plants.
Demerits/Limitations
Nonliving drugs cannot be classified.
If characters of two families are very close, then classification becomes difficult.
Technical person is required for classification of drugs.
Q 5. Describe the chemotaxonomical method of classification of crude drugs.
It is the latest method which brings together advantages of chemical method and taxonomical method.
This method gives details of taxonomy (family) and active chemical constituent of the drug.
For example:
Ginger can be explained as:
Biological source: Ginger is obtained from rhizomes of Zingiber
officinale.
Family: Zingiberaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains not less than 2% of volatile
oil.
Nux vomica
Biological source: It is obtained from dried, seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica.
Family: Ligniaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains not less than 1.2% of strychnine.
Merits
It gives information of family and chemical constituents.
It is a scientific method.
It also gives information about 1% of chemical constituent present
in the drug.
Demerit
Skilled and qualified person is required for classification of drugs.
Q 6. Discuss chemical method of classification of crude drugs.
Chemical Method of Classification
In this method the drugs are classified according to the nature of active chemical constituent present in the drug.
Active chemical constituents are mainly responsible for physiological or pharmacological actions.
The method of classification is as follows:
Carbohydrates, e.g. starch, honey.
Proteins, e.g. gelatin, wool.
Lipids, e.g. arachis oil, beeswax
Vitamins, e.g. cod liver oil, shark liver oil.
Enzymes, e.g. yeast, papaine.
Tannins, e.g. catechu.
Resins, e.g. asafoetida, myrrh.
Alkaloids, e.g. cinchona, ipecac.
Glycosides, e.g. digitalis, aloe.
Volatile oils, e.g. fennel, coriander.
Gums, e.g. acacia.
Mucilages, e.g. agar, tragacanth.
Merits
Chemical constituents are known.
Medicinal uses are known.
It explains physical and chemical properties of active constituent.
It helps in extraction process during selection of menstruum.
It gives information about pharmacological action of drug.
Helpful for identification of mainly unorganised drugs.
It helps in proper storage of drugs.
Demerits
If drug contains two or more constituents, then it is difficult to classify.
Drugs of different origin may grouped under similar chemical title.
The technical person having the knowledge of chemical constituents is necessary.
Variations in the % of chemical constituents may confuse during classification.
Adulterated drugs may misguide during classification.
Q 7. Explain pharmacological method of classification of crude drugs. Give its merits and demerits.
Pharmacological Method of Classification
In this method drugs are classified as per pharmacological action or physiological action of active constituent.
It should be noted that some drugs may produce more than one pharmacological effects and then classification becomes more complex.
In this method the drugs are classified as per actions and uses:
Carminative, e.g. coriander, clove.
Purgatives, e.g. senna, castor oil.
Cardiotonics, e.g. digitalis, squill.
CNS stimulants, e.g. nux vomica.
Diuretics, e.g. gokharu, punarnava.
Oxytocics, e.g. ergot.
Antimalarials, e.g. cinchona.
Anticancer, e.g. vinca.
Antirheumatics, e.g. guggul, colchicum.
Bitters, e.g. Cinchona, Gention.
Antidysenteric, e.g. ipecacuhna.
Merits/Advantages
Nature of physiological action can be understood.
Nature of pharmacological action can be understood.
Gives exact idea about the storage and uses of drug.
Medicinal uses are understood.
The drugs whose chemical constituents are not known can be classified.
Demerits/Limitations
Difficult to classify the drug showing many pharmacological actions.
Does not give idea about chemistry of chemical constituent.
No idea about mechanism of action of drug.
Does not give idea about doses of drugs.
In classification adverse (–ve) effects are not mentioned.
Do not give idea about morphology of a drug.
Knowledge of pharmacology is required for classification of drugs.
Contraindications of drugs are not mentioned, thus may produce dangerous effects.
Q 8. Describe morphological/organoleptic method of classification of crude drugs.
Morphological/Organoleptic Classification
In this method the drugs are classified according to the parts of plant (drug) like leaves, fruits, flowers, woods, barks, extracts, gums, etc.
Parts of Plants
Barks: Arjuna, cinchona.
Flowers: Clove, saffron.
Leaves: Senna, digitalis.
Fruits: Fennel, coriander.
Seeds: Nux vomica, linseed.
Rhizome: Ginger.
Stems: Vasaka.
Flowering tops: Tulsi.
Bulbs: Garlic.
Tubers: Aconite.
Merits
It gives an idea about the morphological characters of drugs.
It is a convenient method for students for practical purposes.
Addition of drugs in system is easy.
Location and tracing of drug is easy.
Adulterant can be identified easily.
Method is helpful in deciding purity of drug.
It gives idea about chemical constituents/composition of drug, e.g. leaves, rhizomes, tubers contain starch.
Disadvantages/Demerits
Does not give an idea about biological sources and uses of drugs.
The drugs which do not have exact morphological form cannot be classified by this method.
When different parts of plant contain different chemical constituents, it is difficult to classify them.
The method is applicable to entire crude drug only.
The quantity of drug required for classification is more.
(Scheme of Pharmacognostic Studies)
Q 1. Explain the terms in short.
Title/Official Title (Official Source)
Title is the official name of the drug.
It is the name of drug mentioned in official books like IP, BP, NF, etc.
The title is in English or Latin.
The title is always written in capital letters.
In various pharmacopoeia different titles of the same drugs may be suggested.
Examples: GINGER, FENNEL.
Synonym
Synonyms are the alternative names of the drug.
Synonyms are in regional languages.
They are used in specific geographical areas.
Pharmacopoeia of India recognises synonyms in English and Hindi languages.
Synonym helps in collecting information available in various regions.
Examples: Ginger. Synonyms: Adrak (Hindi)
Ale (Marathi).
Geographical Source
It informs the geographical places where the plants or animals occur naturally and where the drug is obtained commercially.
It helps in knowing atmospheric conditions required for the plants and animals.
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Biological Source (Biological Origin)
The drug can be obtained from plant source or animal source which is named biological source. It may be of two types:
Botanical source: It means drug is obtained from plant, e.g. arjuna consists of dried stem bark of the plant known as “Terminalia arjuna”.
Animal source: It means drug is obtained from animals, e.g. shark liver oil is obtained from shark fish.
Importance of biological source: It gives information about:
Source—plant/animal.
Parts of plant/animal.
Maturity state of parts of plants.
Scientific name of plant/animal.
Method of collection of drug.
Family and scientific name of the drug.
Pharmacopoeial standards.
Collection
It gives information about process of collection of parts of plant and prevention of damage to the plant during collection.
The collection gives knowledge of their chemical constituents responsible for therapeutic action.
Collection is considered for its purity of drugs.
Generally the plants are collected when they are rich in their chemical constituents.
The drugs containing thermolabile substances and volatile oils are collected at low temperature.
Thus, choice of collection depends upon the chemical constituents of the plants.
Cultivation
It explains agricultural aspects.
It explains scientific process of cultivation of plants.
Cultivation means a systematic reproduction of plant.
It informs about:
Method of reproduction of plant.
Required rainfall and water supply.
Nature of soil to be used.
Fertilizers required.
Plant protection involves used of insecticides.
Mechanical methods, e.g. cutting, scraping, burning, etc.
Systematic Study of Drugs 15
Cultivation helps in complete growth of plant and it maximizes active chemical constituent of the drug.
Preparation of Drugs for Market
It includes various steps like removal of unwanted parts of plants, drying, packing and transportation.
Morphology/Morphological Characters (Organoleptic Characters)
It is also known as macroscopy.
Morphology means the study of external characters or parts of the plants.
The external characters or sensory characters of the plant are known as morphological characters or organoleptic characters.
Observations like appearance, surface, size, shape, colour, odour, taste are taken with sensory organs, hence are also known as organoleptic characters.
Microscopy/Microscopical Characters (Histological Characters)
Microscopy involves the study of microscopical features such as TS, LS and observed under microscope.
The characters which are observed under microscope are called microscopic characters/histological characters.
The specific microscopic characters such as stomata, trichomes, starch grains helps in evaluation of drugs.
Chemical Constituent/Active Constituent/Active Principle
It means main constituent of the drug which produces a therapeutic action.
A drug may contain many chemical constituents.
Some of the chemical constituents are capable of producing physiological and pharmacological actions on human body and other animals. Some drugs contain several constituents which are inert.
The unorganised drugs are identified and confirmed by chemical constituents.
Example: Cinnamon
Chemical constituents
Volatile oils
Tannins
Mucilages
Volatile oil is the main chemical constituents.
The mucilage and tannins are inactive constituents.
Substitute/Substituent
Substituents are the alternative varieties of the drugs having less percentage of active constituents and are added to genuine drug.
Substitutes are the unwanted parts of the plant present in original drug like leaf or roots of the same plants and sometimes other variety of drugs are mixed in the original drug.
Examples:
Senna: Substitutes—dog senna, Japanese senna.
Digitalis leaf: Substitutes—other parts of digitalis plant looking similar to that of digitalis leaf or digitalis lanata variety.
Adulterants
Adulterants are the substances purposefully added in the original drug to increase profit in marketing and they look similar to the original drug but does not contain any active constituent.
The process of worthless admixtures in the genuine is known as adulteration.
Adulterated mixture may prove dangerous to the patients.
Adulteration is profit-oriented process.
Powders and oil can be easily adulterated.
Adulterants are sometimes similar to genuine drug in respect of morphological characters such as size, shape, small, etc. but do not have any chemical constituents.
Example
The seeds of Strychonus nux-vomica are adulterated with that of “Strychonus blanda” which do not contains strychnine.
Ginger is adulterated with exhausted ginger.
Uses
Uses of drugs mean the actual physiological and pharmacological effects produced by drug on human body and other animals.
Therapeutic uses/pharmacological uses: It means use of drugs in the treatment of diseases or disorders.
Pharmaceutical uses: When a drug is used for other purposes than its medicinal use, they are commonly known as pharmaceutical uses (technical uses), e.g. fennel, ginger as flavouring agents and turmeric as colouring agents.
Collection and Preparation of Crude Drugs for Market
Q 1. Explain the term “collection” in the preparation of crude drugs for market.
Collection of Crude Drugs
Collection gives information about the process of collection of parts of plant and prevention of damage to the plant during collection.
The collection gives knowledge of their chemical constituents responsible for therapeutic actions.
Collection is considered for its purity.
Choice of collection of drugs depends upon type of chemical constituents of plant.
Generally the plants are collected when they are rich in their chemical constituents.
The drugs containing thermolabile substances and volatile oils are collected at low temperature.
The collection of drug may involve the maximum concentration of active constituent.
Collection should be done in a proper environmental conditions.
Examples
The drugs which constitute the leaf and flowering tops of the plants are collected just before they reach their flowering stage, e.g. senna, digitalis, belladona.
The barks are generally collected in spring environment, i.e. in the
early summer.
The fruits are collected depending upon the parts of fruit which are pharmaceutically important.
Rhizomes are collected after full vegetative growth of the plant.
The unorganised drugs such as gums, resins are collected as soon
as they ooze out of the plant.
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Q 2. Explain “garbling/dressing” in preparation of crude drugs for market.
Garbling/Dressing
“Garbling is the process in which there is a removal of soil, dirt and
foreign organic parts of the same plant or nonconstituting drug.”
Garbling is the next step in the preparation of crude drug for market after drying.
If such foreign material is permitted in the crude drugs, the quality of drug will be reduced. Hence, the percentage of foreign material should be such that it should pass the pharmacopoeial limits.
Examples
Drugs constituting rhizomes are separated carefully from roots or rootlets and also from stem bases.
The pieces of iron must be removed with magnet in cases of castor seeds before crushing and by shifting.
The pieces of bark should be removed by peeling in processing of gum acacia.
The excessive stems in case of lobelia and stramonium are needed to be removed.
Importance of Garbling
It improves quality of drug.
It improves purity of drug.
It gives shining appearance to the drug.
It increases stability of drug.
Garbling increases market value of the product.
Q 3. Explain “drying” in preparation of crude drugs for market.
Drying
Drying means complete removal of water from the drugs.
Before marketing a crude drug, it is necessary to dry the drug to
get a good pharmaceutical appearance to the drugs.
Drying should be done without loss of chemical constituents.
Drying consists of removal of sufficient moisture content of crude drug. So as to improve its quality and to prevent growth of microorganisms.
Drying also inhibits partially the enzyme reactions.
The slicing, cutting into small pieces is done to increase the rate
of drying.
Types of drying
Natural drying.
Artificial drying:
Tray dryers
Vacuum dryers
Spray dryers.
Natural Drying/Sun Drying
It may be either direct sun, drying or drying in the shade.
If the natural colour of drug and the volatile principles of the drugs
are to be retained, then drying in shade is preferred.
If the contents of the drugs are quite stable to temperature and sunlight, then the drugs can be dried directly in sunlight.
Artificial Drying
It is done by using the following devices.
Tray dryers (an oven): The drugs which do not contain volatile
oils and are quite stable to heat are dried in tray dryers.
Vacuum dryers: The drugs which are sensitive to higher temperatures, are dried by this process, e.g. tannic acid, digitalis leaves.
Spray drying: Some drugs which are highly sensitive to atmospheric conditions and also to temperature of vacuum drying are dried by spray drying method, e.g. papaya latex, pectin, tannins are dried by spray drying.
Q 4. Explain “harvesting” in the preparation of crude drugs for market.
Harvesting is an important operation in the cultivation technology.
Harvesting can be done correctly by skilled workers.
It is a hard job and may not be economical.
In some cases, the harvesting may be done by mechanical devices.
The underground drugs like roots, rhizomes, tubers, etc. are
harvested by mechanical devices such as diggers or the lifters.
The tubers and roots are thoroughly washed in water to remove earthy matter.
Many times flowers, seeds and small fruits are harvested by a special
device known as seed strippers.
The technique of beating the plant with bamboos is used in case
of cloves.
The cochineal insects are collected from branches of cactus by brushing.
Fennel, coriander and caraway plants are uprooted and dried. After drying either they are thrashed or beaten and the fruits are separated by winnowing.
Q 5. Explain “packing” in the preparation of crude drugs for market.
“Packing” is a technique in which drug is packed in a container
which protects the drug from contamination.
The climatic conditions during transportation and storage should be considered while packing the drugs.
Packing improves quality and stability of the drugs.
Examples
Colophony and balsam of tolu are packed in kerosene tin.
Asafoetida is stored in well-closed containers to prevent loss of
volatile oils.
Cod liver oil is very sensitive to sunlight, hence it should be stored in light-resistant containers.
The drugs which are very sensitive to moisture and are costly, should be packed very carefully in airtight containers, e.g. digitalis, ergot.
The drugs like roots, seeds and others which do not need special attention are packed in gunny bags. While in some cases bags are coated with polythene internally.
Packing also protects the drug from damage during transportation.
Q 6. Give the method of cultivation and collection of “senna” leaf.
Cultivation
The senna plants are cultivated by sowing the seeds.
The seeds are mixed with sand before cultivation.
The sowing of seed can be carried out in the month of March, April or November, December.
Requirements
Soil should have water nonretaining property and should be red and black colour.
The rainfall should be heavy about 1500 to 3000 mm/year.
Temperature should be warm about 25°C average temperature.
Process
The seeds are sown in nursery beds.
They germinate within 3 weeks.
After germination within 15 days, the young plants are transferred
into farms.
Collection
The plants are allowed to grow for 3–5 months.
The flowering tops are cut off periodically to ensure maximum
branching.
When the leaflets have measurable thickness in the month of September or February, the leaves are manually collected.
Other Processes
The leaflets are subjected to harvesting.
In the process, large pieces of stems, flowers, seeds are rejected.
The leaflets are spread on floor and dried in shelves.
A care is taken that overlapping of leaflets is avoided during drying.
The leaflets loose about 50–60% of their weights.
Yellowish green coloured leaves are selected.
They are packed in gunny bags under pressure and marketed.
Q 7. What are the methods of cultivation and collection of digitalis leaves?
Digitalis Leaves
Cultivation
It needs sandy, light soil, rich in calcium and traces of magnesium.
Rainfall about 1500 mm/year. Average temperature of 15°C.
Process
Soil is sterilized by steam before sowing the seeds.
Seeds are mixed with fine sand and sown in nursery beds in the
month of March or April.
Two to three weeks are required for germination.
The young plants are transplanted in the month of September to November.
The area under cultivation is kept free from weeds.
Collection
In the first year, the plants bear rosette leaves and in the second
year sessile leaves.
The plant flowers in the month of April and is followed by fruiting.
Before that the leaves are manually collected in afternoon hours.
If the plants are to be allowed to grow, the flowering tops are
removed.
Other processes
The digitalis leaves are immediately taken to drying centre.
Leaves are spread on the trays with fine wire netting bottom.
They are dried in vaccum dryers.
The temperature of drying is maintained below 60°C and continued till leaves contain moisture less than 5%.
The leaves are packed in airtight containers along with suitable dehydrating agent.
Q 8. What are the methods of cultivation and collection of opium?
Opium
Cultivation
Cultivation of opium is controlled and monitored by Government of India.
Requirements
Soil water nonretaining grey or whitish coloured.
Temperature: Average temperature is 35°C.
Rainfall: About 100 mm/year.
Process of Cultivation
Cultivation is carried out by sowing the seeds.
The seeds are mixed with sand and scattered on the land.
Distance between two plants to be maintained is about 25 cm.
The seeds are germinated within two weeks.
Collection
In the month of February or March in the afternoon or evening
hours, the vertical incisions are taken.
The incisions are taken from top to bottom of the fruit.
Three to four incisions are taken at a time.
Whitish latex comes out of fruits in the early morning.
Using a blade, latex is collected.
Latex is dried and packed as per the norms stated by Government of India.
For transportation and marketing along with possession of the drug, appropriate licences are required.
Q 9. Give the method of cultivation and collection of Rauwolfia.
Rauwolfia
Cultivation
The plants grow in wide ranges of atmospheric conditions.
Soil should be rich in clay and water nonretaining.
The pH of soil should be 4.
Temperature of about 10 to 38°C.
Rainfall: 250 to 500 mm.
Process of cultivation
Plants are propogated using sexual method as well as vegetative method.
The seeds are sown after selecting healthy seeds into nursery beds.
Sowing is carried out in the month of May and June.
The young plants are transferred into the forms in August or September.
Distance between two plants should be about 30 cm.
In vegetative method root cuttings are used.
The plants are provided with chemical fertilizers like urea and ammonium sulphate.
Collection
When the plants are about 3 to 4 years old, they are uprooted.
The stem bases are separated.
The roots are washed and dried in air.
Then they are packed and marketed.
Q 10. What are the methods of cultivation and collection of ergot?
Ergot
Cultivation
Ergot is a fungus.
Some part of the life cycle of the fungus is completed in soil or air and another part of life cycle is completed on rye plant.
The fungus growth can be developed artificially.
Ascospores are developed in a nutrient medium.
The colonies are collected and diluted with H2O.
The solution is spread over rye plant.
The sclerotia produced, fall on the grounds and they are collected.
Collection
The collection is either manual process or mechanical process.
They are placed in 30% solution of NaCl.
The matured and well-developed sclerotia float on the surface.
After collection sclerotia are dried thoroughly and stored in dark coloured containers along with suitable dehydrating agent and marketed.
Chemical Nature of Natural Drugs
(Alkaloids, Glycosides, Tannins, Resins,
Q 1. Define alkaloids. Classify alkaloids giving suitable examples.
Alkaloids
The alkaloids are basic nitrogenous organic products of plant origin, having marked physiological actions when administered internally.
Classification of Alkaloids
Alkaloids are divided into two main classes:
Nonheterocyclic alkaloids: Ephedrine (ephedra), colchicine (colchicum).
Heterocyclic alkaloids:
Types of alkaloids
Examples
Source
1. Tropane
Atropine
Datura
2. Quinoline
Quinine
Cinchona
3. Indole
Strychnine
Nux-vomica
4. Isoquinoline
Papaverine
Opium
5. Phenanthrene
Morphine
Opium
6. Purine
Caffeine
Tea
7. Pyrrole and pyrolidine
Nicotine
Tobacco
8. Pyridine and piperidine
Lobeline
Lobelia
9. Imidazole
Pilocarpine
Pilocarpus
10. Terpenoid
Aconitine
Aconite
Q 2. Give the properties and role of alkaloids in plants.
Properties of Alkaloids
Alkaloids are colourless, solid and crystalline.
Alkaloids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
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Alkaloids in the salt form are water soluble and insoluble in organic solvents.
Alkaloids are optically active being usually levorotatory.
Alkaloids are highly potent medicaments and possess curative properties.
Alkaloids are biosynthesized due to participation of several amino acids and enzymatic systems.
Role of Alkaloids in Plants
Alkaloids are nitrogenous organic compounds.
Alkaloids are basic in nature and so they can react with acid molecules easily.
Alkaloids are metabolic products and so they are produced, stored and utilized whenever necessary.
The plants consider alkaloid molecules as source of nitrogen atom. They are utilized in protein synthesis and synthesis hormones.
The alkaloids are generally associated with acids and so they can act as carriers of acid molecules.
The alkaloids help in maintenance of regular physiological activities like growth and reproduction.
The alkaloids are protective agents.
The alkaloids are detoxicating agents.
Amount of alkaloids changes from time to time in a day and from season to season in a year.
Q 3. Explain various chemical tests for alkaloids.
Chemical Tests for Alkaloids
Precipitation Tests
Mayer’s test: Alkaloids give cream or pale yellow precipitate with Mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric iodide solution).
Dragendorff’s test: Alkaloids give brown or reddish brown coloured precipitate with Dragendorff’s reagent (potassium bismuth iodide solution).
Wagner’s test: Alkaloids give brown or reddish brown coloured precipitate with Wagner’s reagent (iodine and potassium iodide solution).
Hager’s test: Alkaloids with Hager’s reagent give yellow precipitate (saturated solution of picric acid).
Q 4. Give the general methods of extraction of alkaloids.
Extraction Method of Alkaloids
The objective of extraction process is to separate alkaloid molecules from all other molecules.
Laboratory Method of Extraction of Alkaloids
The drug sample is powdered.
The sample is treated with strong base (NaOH).
The added base reacts with acid molecules present along with alkaloids.
The products formed are neutralized products, i.e. salt and water.
The salts formed are soluble in water, so the mixture is washed with H2O. It forms aqueous phase. The alkaloid molecules get isolated from aqueous phase.
A small quantity of any suitable organic solvents is added 4 to 5 times. The organic solvents dissolve the alkaloid molecules in it.
Now in the mixture there are two phases—aqueous phase and organic phase. These two phases can be separated using suitable apparatus like separating funnel.
The organic phase is collected in evaporating dish.
After heating the organic solvent gets evaporated and residue of alkaloid is obtained.
Nowadays extraction can be done by using chromatography technique.
Q 5. Give the therapeutic effects/uses/applications of alkaloids.
Alkaloids are highly potent medicaments and possess curative properties.
It has narcotic action, e.g. morphine.
It has tranquillizer action, e.g. reserpine.
It is a nerve stimulant, e.g. strychnine.
It is a local anaesthetic, e.g. cinchocaine, cocaine.
It is an antispasmodic, e.g. atropine.
It is a CNS stimulant, e.g. caffeine.
It is an antimalarial, e.g. quinine.
Q 6. What are glycosides? How are they classified?
Glycosides
Glycosides are organic compounds which on hydrolysis give one or more molecules of sugar of one nonsugar molecule. Sugar molecule is called glycon and nonsugar molecule is called aglycone or genin.
Glycoside
Hydrolysis Sugar + Nonsugar (Glycon) (Aglycone)
Classification of Glycosides
Depending upon Glycone Present
Glucose Glucoside
Fructose Fructoside
Rhamnose Rhamnoside
As per Linkage
C-glycosides: Carbon linkage, e.g. sennosides in senna.
O-glycosides: Flavone glycosides, e.g. amygdalin in bitter almond.
N-glycosides, e.g. sinigrin in black mustard.
S-glycosides, e.g. prunassin in wild cherry bark.
As per Chemical Nature of Aglycone
Cyanogenetic glycosides: On hydrolysis give one of the molecules of H, C, N, e.g. prunassin in wild cherry.
Saponin glycosides: Form soap solution in water, e.g. glycerrhizine in glycerrhiza.
Cardiac glycosides: Digitoxigenin.
Thiocyanate glycosides, e.g. sinigrin.
Phenolic glycosides, e.g. salicin, rhein.
Steroidal glycosides, e.g. digitalis glycosides.
As per Pharmacological Method
Cardiotonics, e.g. digitalis.
Laxative, e.g. senna.
Bitter tonics, e.g. picrorrhiza.
Expectorants, e.g. glycerrhiza.
Q 7. Define and classify volatile oils giving suitable examples. Give the properties and uses of volatile oils.
Volatile oils are odourous volatile principles of plant and animal sources which are easily evaporable.
Classification of Volatile Oils
Alcohol containing volatile oils, e.g. peppermint, cardamom.
Aldehyde containing volatile oils, e.g. cinnamon, lemon, orange.
Hydrocarbon containing volatile oils, e.g. turpentine.
Ketone containing volatile oils, e.g. caraway.
Oxide containing volatile oils, e.g. eucalyptus.
Phenolic-ester containing volatile oils, e.g. fennel, Nutmeg.
Phenol containing volatile oils, e.g. clove.
General Properties of Volatile Oils
They have characteristic odour.
They have high retractive index.
Most of volatile oils are optically active.
They are either colourless or rarely coloured.
They have aromatic taste.
They are insoluble in water and soluble in ether, alcohol, etc.
They have good essence. The oils are called essence oils.
Uses of Volatile Oils
As flavouring agents and perfumes.
As carminatives.
As stomachic.
Externally, counterirritant.
As a spices.
As a local anaesthetic.
Q 8. Define tannins. Classify tannins giving suitable examples.
Tannins are the derivatives of polyhydroxy benzoic acid and are capable of precipitating proteins.
Classification of Tannins
Tannins
True tannins Pseudo-tannins, e.g. gallic acid, chloregenic acid
Hydrolysable tannins
Condensed tannins
Galli tannins,
e.g. clove, rhubarb
True Tannins
Ellagi tannins,
e.g. behda, myrobalan
These are amorphous compounds soluble in water having high molecular weight. They are of two types:
Hydrolysable Tannins
These types of tannins can be hydrolysed with the help of mineral acids (HCl, HNO3, H2SO4), hence called hydrolysable tannins. They are of two types:
Galli tannins: The hydrolysis product is gallic acid, e.g. clove, rhubarb.
Ellagi tannins: The hydrolysis product is ellagic acid, e.g. behda, myrobalan.
Condensed Tannins
They cannot be hydrolysed. If they are subjected for hydrolysis, the molecules break downs and the decomposition product “phlobaphene” is obtained and so they are known as phlobatannins. Phlobaphene is insoluble in water and red in colour, e.g. catechu.
Pseudo-tannins
These are tannin-like substances having low molecular weights, e.g. gallic acid, chlorgenic acid.
Q 9. Give the properties, uses and chemical tests for tannins.
Properties of Tannins
Tannins are soluble in water, dilute alkalies, alcohol, glycerine.
Tannins are insoluble in other organic solvents.
Tannins have a bitter and astringent in taste.
Tannins combine with skin proteins and precipitates them.
On hydrolysis by enzymes, tannins decompose mainly into glucose and gallic acid.
Uses of Tannins
As astringents.
Causes contraction of smooth muscles.
Used in leather industry, inks and dyes.
Used in food processing, food ripening and in manufacturing of tea, cocoa.
In treatment of mouth and throat infections.
General Chemical Tests for Tannins
Gold beater skin test: A piece of gold beaters skin (membrane of intestine of ox) + 2% dilute HCl, wash with distilled water. Add tannin solution. Allow it to react for 5 minutes. Add 1% ferrous sulphate solution.
– Observation: Brown to black colour shows positive test for tannins.
Phenazone test: 5 ml of aqueous drug extract + 0.9 gm sodium acid phosphate (NaHPO4), warm, cool, filter to get filtrate.
Add 2% phenazone solution coloured precipitate is observed.
Catechin test: Take drug extract of tannin solution and boil a dip matchstick in it. Dry in air. Add a drop of concentration of HCl purple or violet coloured is observed (condensed tannins).
Tannins with aqueous FeCl3 solution gives blue, black or green colour.
Tannins, when treated with 1% gelatin solution and 10% NaCl solution, a precipitate is observed.
Q 10. What are resins? Classify resins with suitable examples, mention the properties of resins.
Resins
Resins are amorphous, translucent solids or semisolids or liquid substances usually obtained as an exudate from plants.
Resins are either metabolic or pathological products.
Classification of Resins
Depending upon the functional group present, resins are classified as:
Acid resins, e.g. colophony.
Ester resins, e.g. benzoin, storax.
Resin alcohols, e.g. balsam of Peru.
Mixed resins (resin combinations):
Gum-resins, e.g. Canada balsam.
Oleo-resins e.g. capsicum (combination of volatile oil and resin).
Oleo-gum-resin, e.g. asafoetida, guggul, myroh.
Glycoresins: Combination of sugar and resin.
Balsams: They are the derivatives of acids like benzoic acid and cinnamic acid, e.g. balsam of Peru, balsam of Tolu.
General Properties of Resins
Amorphous in nature.
Insoluble in water.
They are end products of metabolism.
On heating they soften and finally melt.
Dissolve in alcohol, chloroform and ether.
Burn with characteristic smoky flame.
Q 11. Define and classify carbohydrates giving suitable examples.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones or compounds which on hydrolysis gives either of above.
Classification
Carbohydrates
Glycans (sweet tasting) Aglycans (no sweet tasting)
Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Homopolysaccha- Heteropolysaccha-
(1 saccharide unit) (2 to9 saccharide units)
Biose (2 C), Disaccharides
(2 monosacharide
e.g. glycoldehyde units)
Triose (3 C),
rides
Starch Glycogen Cellulose
rides
Hyaluronic acid Heparin Chondroitin
e.g. glyceraldehyde
Tetrose (4 C),
e.g. erythrose
Pentose (5 C),
e.g. ribose
Hexose (6 C),
e.g. glucose
Sucrose
(Glu+ Flu)
Maltose (Glu+ Glu)
Lactose (Glu+ Gala)
Hemicellulose
Q 12. Write a note on ‘gums’ and ‘mucilages’.
Gums
Gums are pathological products formed after any injury to the plant.
The plants containing schizogenous ducts or glands can form the gums.
These ducts or glands form and eliminates sticky, semiliquids.
These substances prevent entry of microbes through injured area.
The process of formation and deposition of gum is known as “gummosis” and the products as gums.
Examples: Acacia gum, guar gum.
Mucilages
Mucilages are physiological products and can be obtained along with gums or any other constituents, e.g. tragacanth mucilage.
Q 13. Define and classify enzymes with suitable examples.
Enzymes are the chemical substances which catalyse various biochemical reactions, e.g. papain, yeast, diastase.
Classification
Oxido-reductases: They catalyze oxidation-reduction reaction,
e.g. tyrosinase.
Transferases: They catalyse transfer reactions, i.e. transfer of groups, e.g. hexokinase.
Hydrolyases: They catalyse hydrolytic reactions, e.g. esterases, phosphatase.
Lyases: They catalyse cleavage reactions, e.g. aldolase, carboxylase.
Isomerases: They catalyse isomerization reactions, e.g. epimerase.
Ligases: These enzymes catalyse the formation of bond, e.g. DNA ligase.
Q 14. Define and classify vitamins giving suitable examples.
Vitamins
Vitamins are the organic compounds which are found in natural foodstuffs and essential for normal growth and metabolic functions of the body.
Classification
Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Water soluble vitamins:
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
Vitamin B complex group:
Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Pyridoxin (B6)
Pantothenic acid
Biotin
Folic acid
Lipolic acid (PABA)
Cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12).
Q 15. Write a note on perfumes and flavouring agents.
Perfumes and Flavouring Agents
Perfumes (Per: Through, Fumes: Smoke)
These are the substances made from natural or synthetic materials and are used for creating a pleasant odour.
Perfumes are used to improve personal appearance in the society.
They are used in cosmetics and in toilet preparations.
The low quality perfumes are known as industrial odourants.
Perfumes are mainly composed of volatile oils.
Perfumes derived from plants are the volatile oils, also called essential oils.
Perfumes obtained from animal source are long lasting, hence are
called fixatives.
Examples
Flowers: Rose, jasmine.
Stem: Sandal.
Leaves: Citronella.
Aerial parts: Geranium.
Flavouring Agents
These are the agents used to give a pleasant flavour to the formulations.
Flavouring agents improve psychological effect of the preparations.
They are used to cover unpleasant odour and taste of the preparations.
Flavouring agents should be selected carefully.
It should not interact with substances present in the preparations.
They should be capable of covering unpleasant odour and taste, e.g.
To cover acidic taste: Orange and liquorice.
To cover bitter taste: Fennel and peppermint.
To cover salty taste: Lemon and orange.
The flavours are made from natural sources are lemon, mint,
orange, clove, lavendor, rose, etc.
Q 16. Explain the following chemical tests.
Keller-Kiliani test
Borntrager test
Keller-Kiliani Test for Digitoxose (for Cardiac Glycosides)
1 gm of powdered digitalis + 10 ml of 70% alcohol.
Boil for 2–3 minutes and filter.
Filtrate + 5 ml water + 0.5 ml lead acetate solution.
Shake well and filter.
Filtrate + equal volume of chloroform.
Evaporate.
Residue + acetic acid + 2 drops of FeCl3.
Transfer the mixture into test tube containing 2 ml of concentration H2SO4.
Observation
Reddish brown layer becomes bluish green in colour.
Conclusion
Digitoxose is present (cardiac glycoside).
Borntrager Test for Senna (Anthraquinone Glycosides)
Powdered leaves of senna + dilute HCl.
Boil and filter immediately.
Cool the filtrate.
Filtrate + chloroform.
Shake well and separate organic solvent layer.
Add dilute ammonia to layer of organic solvent.
Observation
Ammoniacal layer becomes pink and finally red.
Conclusion
Anthraquinone glycosides are present.
Q 17. Describe general method of collection of bark.
Barks are collected in a season when they contain maximum concentration and active constituent. Following are methods of collecting barks:
Felling Method
This is very old method of collecting barks. The tree is cut at base and bark is peeled out.
Uprooting Method
In this method, roots of the plants are drawn out of soil and bark is
stripped off from roots and branches.
Coppicing Method
In this method, plant is allowed to grow for a definite period and then it is cut off at specific distance from soil. The stumps, which remain in ground are allowed to send shoots, which develop further independently yielding aerial parts.
These new parts are cut off and bark is collected from shoots.
Q 18. Define and classify terpenoids with examples.
Terpenoids are the hydrocarbons and their originated derivatives which are found in all volatile oils of plant or animal origin.
Classification of Terpenoids
Terpenoids are classified on the basis of isoprene units, i.e. C5H8.
Monoterpenes, e.g. camphor, tulsi, dill, coriander.
Sesquiterpenes, e.g. clove, sandalwood oil.
Diterpenoids, e.g. taxus.
Tritepenoids, e.g. ambergris.
Tetraterpenoids, e.g. annatto, crocus.
Polyterpenoids, e.g. rubber.
Q 19. State different techniques/methods of isolation of volatile oils.
Hydrodistillation
Method comprising of water distillation, water and steam distillation is used for extraction of volatile oil from herbal drugs. The fresh material is subjected to hydrodistillation in case of the leafy drug.
Enfleurage
This method is used for extraction of delicate perfumes. The fresh flower petals are mechanically spread on layer of fatty material, allowed to imbibe and exhausted petals are replaced by fresh material. The process is continued till fatty layer is saturated with volatile principles which are then extracted with lipid solvent.
Eucelle Method
This method is used for extraction of citrus oil, wherein oil cells in ring are ruptured mechanically using pointed projection by twisting raw material over them in clockwise direction either mechanically or manually.
Q 20. What are glycosides? How are they isolated from plant?
Glycosides
Glycosides are defined as organic compounds from plant or animal sources which on enzymatic or acid hydrolysis gives one or more sugar moieties along with nonsugar moieties.
Method of Isolation of Glycosides
Stass-Otto Method
The drug containing glycoside is finely powdered and the powder is extracted by continuous hot percolation using Soxhlet’s apparatus with alcohol as solvent.
During this process, various enzymes present in plant parts are also deactivated due to heating. The thermolabile glycoside should be extracted at temperature below 45ºC. The extract is treated with lead acetate to precipitate tannin and thus eliminates nonglycosidal impurities. The excess of lead acetate is precipitated as lead sulphide by passing hydrogen sulphide gas through solution. The extract is filtered, concentrated to get crude glycosides.
From the crude extract the glycosides are obtained in pure form by making use of processes like crystallization, chromatographic techniques, etc.
Q 21. Describe the general method of isolation of tannins.
Isolation of Tannins
Both hydrolysable and condensed tannins are highly soluble in water and alcohol but insoluble in organic solvents like solvent ether, chloroform and benzene.
Tannin compounds can be easily extracted by water or alcohol. The general method for the extraction is by water or alcohol. The general method for the extraction of tannic acid from various galls is either with water saturated ether or with mixture of water alcohol and ether. In such cases the free acids like gallic and ellagic acid goes along with ether while true tannins gets extracted in water. If drug consists of chlorophyll or pigment, may be removed by ether. After extraction the aqueous and etheral layers are separated concentrated, dried and subjected to further isolation and purification using various separational techniques of chromatography.
Surgical Fibres, Sutures and Dressings
Q 1. What are fibres? Classify surgical fibres with examples.
Fibres
Fibres are the elements which are synthesized or prepared from plant or animal and contain chain of molecules.
Classification of Fibres
Plant fibres, e.g. cotton, banana, jute.
Animal fibres, e.g. silk, wool.
Mineral fibres, e.g. glass, asbestos.
Synthetic fibres, e.g. rayon, nylon, terylene.
Q 2. Define surgical dressings. Give its essential requirements.
Mention uses of surgical dressings.
Surgical Dressings
“The surgical dressings are the materials used for covering the wounds or injuries and to be applied singly or in combination.”
Official/Essential Requirements
They should be sterile.
They should be stored in dry well-ventilated place at temperature not exceeding 25°C.
They should be free from loose threads, ends and fibres.
Adhesive products should not be allowed to freeze.
Only permitted antiseptics should be used in a prescribed concentration.
They should be dyed if mentioned in the monograph.
They should be durable.
They should be easy to handle at all stage.
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Uses of Surgical Dressings/Functions
They provide ideal conditions for wound healing.
They remove wound exudates from the site.
They give mechanical support to the tissues.
They give protection to healing wound.
They prevent infections.
They protect the wounds from outside liquids.
Q 3. What are different types of surgical dressings (classification)?
Types of Surgical Dressings
Fibres and related materials, e.g. wood cellulose.
Carded products, e.g. absorbent cotton.
Nonextensible, nonadhesive woven products, e.g. absorbent muslin
cloth.
Nonextensible adhesible woven products, e.g. belladona adhesive
plasters.
Extensible nonadhesive products, e.g. cotton bandage, elastic web bandage.
Extensible adhesive woven products, e.g. elastic adhesive bandage,
extension plaster.
Nonwoven products, e.g. surgical adhesive tape.
Q 4. What are sutures? What are the properties of sutures? Give uses.
Sutures
Sutures are sterile threads or fibres used for stitching or sewing the tissues together.
Properties of Sutures
They must be sterile.
They should be non irritant.
They should have finest possible gauge.
They should have adequate strength.
If absorbable, their time of absorption must be known.
They are to be used once only.
Uses of Sutures
Sutures are used for sewing the tissues together.
Nylon sutures are used in skin and plastic surgery.
Kangaroo tendons are specially used in hernia.
Metallic sutures are used in general surgery.
Q 5. Define surgical sutures. How are they classified?
Surgical Sutures
“Surgical sutures are sterile threads or fibres used for stitching or sewing the tissues together.”
Classification of Sutures
Absorbable sutures:
Sterile catgut
Sterile reconstituted collagen suture.
Nonabsorbable sutures:
Fibres, e.g. silk, cotton
Sterile linen suture, e.g. muslin
Sterile polyamide suture, e.g. nylon
Sterile polyester suture, e.g. terylene
Sterile stainless and silver suture, e.g. metal springs.
Haemostatic sutures:
Oxidised cellulose
Absorbable gelatin sponge.
Q 6. What is surgical catgut? Give the method of preparation of catgut.
Surgical Catguts
“Surgical catguts are the sterile absorbable sutures made of fibres obtained from collagen of animals.”
Preparation of Catgut
Collagen is obtained from submucus connective tissues of small
intestine of sheep.
Intestine is cleaned of its contents.
About 7.5 meters of intestine is selected.
It is split length wise in 2 to 3 ribbons.
Ribbons are separated by machines.
Ribbons are stretched under tension and dried. It gives mechanical strength to the ribbons.
Ribbons are tanned or hardened by soaking them in a solution of
chromium salt.
The dried ribbons are polished to obtain smooth string gauzed for
its diameters.
The fine fibres having uniform diameters and smoothness are then
sterilized.
Q 7. How catguts/sutures are sterilized?
The sterilization of catgut is done by the following methods:
Chemical sterilization/iodine method: In this method catguts are dipped in iodine and potassium iodide solution for 24 hours.
Sterilisation by irradiation: This is the latest method. The catguts are exposed to gamma rays obtained from cobalt 60.
Sterilization by heat: There are two methods:
Boilable catguts: The catguts are placed in glass tube and are filled with some amount of Toulene and are heated. Then they are sterilized in autoclave. They are stored as a soaking material in distilled water.
Nonboilable catguts: The catguts are packed in plastic packets.
They are placed in mixture of alcohol and water.
Q 8. Define the terms ‘ligatures’ and ‘bandage’.
Ligatures
Ligatures are sterile threads or fibres used for tightening muscles, blood vessels, etc.
Bandage
A material which holds the dressing in place and applies pressure or support on injured parts is called bandage.
Q 9. Give the biological source, method of preparation and uses of cotton.
Cotton
Synonym: Absorbent cotton, cotton wool, purified cotton, gossypol.
Biological source: The drug is obtained from trichomes of seeds
of “Gossypium barbadense”.
Family: Malvaceae.
Method of Preparation of Absorbent Cotton
The cotton plant after flowering bears the fruits known as capsules.
Each capsule is made up of 3 to 5 chambers known as cells/seeds.
They are covered by large number of trichomes.
Each seed covered with trichomes is known as balls.
After collecting the balls, they are subjected to ginning process.
In ginning process, trichomes are separated from seeds.
These trichomes with some instrument are divided into two types depending upon the length, as short fibres and long fibres.
The short fibres are used in surgical dressings. They are known
as linters.
The raw cotton contains wax, fats, colouring matter and iron
impurities.
To remove the impurities, the linters are taken to “cotton opener”.
The fibres are then treated with dilute NaOH solution under pressure for 10 to 15 hours. It separates wax and fat from fibres.
The fibres are washed with water, bleached, dried and sterilized.
Chemical constituent:
90% of cellulose.
7 to 8% of moisture wax, fat, etc.
Storage
To be stored in cool and dry place.
They should be protected from light.
Uses
As a surgical dressings as ligature and suture.
As a filter media.
As insulator.
It absorbs blood, mucus, pus and prevents the wounds from
infection.
Q 10. Write in brief about “wool”.
Wool
Biological source: They are obtained from the fleece of sheep ovis
aries.
Family: Bovidae.
Preparation: The fleece of a sheep is cut and hairs are separated. Impurities like dust, grease are removed. The fibres are bleached, washed, dried sterilized and marketed.
Description: Wool hairs are smooth, elastic, lustrous, curly, hygroscopic and slippery to touch.
Chemical constituents: Keratin and cystine (amino acid).
Uses:
Surgical dressing as ligature and sutures.
Filter medium.
In crape bandages.
Q 11. Give the biological source, method of preparations and uses of “silk”.
Silk
Biological source: They are obtained from cocoons of Bombyx mori
and other varieties of Bombyx.
Family: Bombycidae.
Method of Preparation
In the life cycle of silk worm larva is the main stage.
The larvae have some special glands in oral cavities.
They secrete the fibre known as sericin, which on exposure to air
becomes hard and form the cocoon.
The cocoons are collected and heated at a temperature 60° to 80°C
in steam current.
The cocoon get opened.
They are placed in hot water to dissolve the gum like substances and fibres become soft.
The fibres are separated, sterilised, packed and marketed.
Chemical constituents: Silk contains a protein known as fibroin.
Uses:
In surgical dressings as a ligature and suture.
In manufacturing of sieves.
In textiles.
Q 12. Write in brief about regenerated fibres/viscose rayon.
Regenerated fibres are prepared from naturally produced long chain molecules and modified to give fibre.
Viscose Rayon
Synonym: Regenerated cellulose, artificial silk.
Source: Viscose rayon is a regenerated fibre prepared from the
wood cellulose or Picea abies.
Family: Pinaceae.
Description:
Rayon is a white, highly lustrous fibre
Its tensile strength varies from 2/3 to 1 and is about half of
that of cotton.
On wetting the tensile strength is decreased to about 60%.
Rayon is a pure form of cellulose.
Chemical constituents: It contains
Cellulose
Hemicellulose
Uses: Viscose rayon is used in the preparation of surgical dressing
and fabrics.
Q 13. Write in brief about “Jute”.
Jute
Synonym: Gunny
Biological source: They are obtained from phloem fibres of the stem bark of various species of the corchorus.
Family: Tiliaceae
Preparation: During the month of July, when plant is in flowering stage, the straight unbranched stems are cut, formed into bundles and put into stagnant water for 10–12 days. During this period, disintegration takes place and phloem and parenchymatous tissue of the bark get separated. Stripping is done and the fibres are cleaned and washed several times with water. The fibres thus obtained are bleached and dried by exposing them to sunlight. After drying, the jute fibres are graded according to colour, length and glossiness and sent to market.
Chemical constituents: The jute contains true cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin.
Uses: Jute is used in:
Manufacture of tow’s (stupa)
Padding splints
Filtering media
Preparation of coarse bags.
Adulteration, Drug Evaluation and
Significance of Pharmacopoeial
Q 1. What is adulteration? What are different methods of adulteration?
Adulteration
“It is defined as worthless admixture of any material in the genuine drug.”
Methods of Adulteration
Mixing of materials obtained from the same source, e.g. bark can be adulterated by addition of stem pieces, cloves are mixed with cloves stalks.
Mixing of closely related parts of plants, e.g. leaves are supposed to be adulterated if the sample contains excessive amount of petioles.
Mixing of exhausted drugs: The containing volatile oils are commonly adulterated in this way, e.g. exhausted fennel is added to genuine fennel.
Roots and rhizomes are supposed to be adulterated if soil attached is not removed completely, e.g. ginger, gentian have adulteration of soil attached with them.
Mixing of natural substances appearing same as drugs, e.g. oils.
Mixing of materials by making them similar to drug, e.g. tea granules can be adulterated by mud and tea powder by soil.
Mixing of same part of the plant of different varieties, e.g. senna leaflet with arabic senna, dog senna. Ginger with African ginger, Japanese ginger.
Adulteration to fortified inferior natural drugs, e.g. lemon grass oil can be adulterated by adding higher amount of citral.
Substitution by artificially manufactured substitutes: This is observed in case of drugs which are costly, e.g. artificial invert sugar is mixed with honey.
46
Many a times a synthetic chemical which constitutes one of the chemical constituents of the drug is added to the genuine drugs, e.g. benzyl benzoate to balsam of Peru and citral to oil of lemon grass and camphor oil and eucalyptus oil in oil of rosemary.
Q 2. Define drug evaluation. Give objective/importance of drug evaluation.
Definition
Evaluation of drug means confirmation of identity purity and quality of drugs.
Objectives of Drug Evaluation
Confirmation of already existing standards as per pharmacopoeia.
Detection of adulteration and substitution in the drug.
To study variations in biochemical activities of drugs.
To study deterioration of the drug due to storage of any chemical reaction.
Q 3. Enlist different methods of drug evaluation.
Morphological/organoleptic method.
Microscopical method.
Physical method.
Chemical method.
Biological method.
Q 4. Write a note on morphological/organoleptic method of drug evaluation.
In this method morphological characters of the drugs are studied.
This method is also known as organoleptic method because observations are taken with sensory organs.
It is also known as macroscopical method because in the method generally entire drugs are examined.
In this method following morphological characters are studied.
Shape: Parts of the plants such as leaves, roots, barks, flowers have specific shape. Thus change in shape can be found and useful for evaluation.
Colour: The colour of the drug dependant upon state of maturity of entire plant as well as cells of specific part. Thus colour change due to storage may be find out, e.g. Beeswax in crude state is yellowish-brown and when purified and bleached appears a white in colour.
Odour: It is the observation taken with nose. It plays an important role in identifying unorganised drugs and oils, e.g.
Aromatic odour: Fennel, coriander Pungent: Clove
Pleasant: Peppermint.
Taste: It is the observation taken with tongue. It is useful to identify unorganised drugs and oils, e.g. sweet—liquorice, bitter—nux vomica, sour and acid—amla.
Fracture: It means broken surface of the bark. The drugs are broken with hands and broken surface is observed for the type of fracture, e.g. short fracture, granular fracture, fibrous fracture, sphintary fracture, laminated fractures.
Part of plant: The various parts of plant are roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, bulbs, leaflets, etc. Thus by knowing the part of plant in the sample, one can get an idea about the name of drug, e.g. root—Rauwolfia, leaf—Senna, Vasaka, flower bud—Clove.
Merits/Advantages of Morphological Method
Easy method.
It helps in identification of drug.
No special equipment is required.
No special experimentation is required.
It helps in deciding purity of drug.
Demerits/Disadvantages of Morphological Method
Large quantity of sample is required during evaluation.
Limitation of sensory organs of human being.
Chances of sample to sample variation are observed.
Applicable to entire organised crude drug.
Time consuming method.
Less helpful for unorganised drugs, powdered drugs and liquid drugs.
Q 5. Write a note on “microscopical evaluation” of crude drugs.
In this method observations are taken by using microscope.
The microscopical characters of crude drugs such as trichomes. starch grains, stomata are observed under microscope.
Objectives of Microscopical Evaluation
To study cellular arrangement in the drugs.
To study special structures or tissues or any modifications.
To take numerical measurements, e.g. number of stomata.
To locate the site of various chemical constituents.
Microscopical methods of drug evaluation are:
}
Stomatal number: It is the average number of stomata present per square mm of the epidermis. Stomatal no. is relatively a constant for particular species of the same age, hence used as a diagnostic character for identification of a leaf drug.
e.g. Datura stramonium—87 Hyoscyamus niger—141
Stomatal numbers
Stomatal index: It is the percentage which the number of stomata forms to the total number of epidermal cells.
I = S × 100
E + S
I = Stomatal index
S = Number of stomata
E = Epidermal cells in the same area.
}
Vein islet number: It is the number of vein islets per sq. mm of leaf surface
e.g. Digitalis purpurea —0.2 to 5.5
Erythroxylon—8 to 12
Cassia Angustifolia—19 to 33
Vein islet number
} Palisade ratio
Palisade ratio: It is the average number of palisade cells, beneath one epidermal cell, using four continuous epidermal cells for the count.
e.g. Atropa belladonna 6 to 10
Datura stramonium 4 to 7
Quantitative microscopy: This method can be used for evaluation of powdered drugs, e.g. clove, ginger, cardamom, nutmeg and umbelliferous fruits.
This method is used only if the powder contains:
Well-defined particles
Single-layered cells or tissues
The object of uniform thickness.
Merits/Advantages
Small quantity of sample is required.
No person to person variation in observations.
Standard observations and values are available in books.
It can be applied to entire drug, powdered drug, rarely unorganised drug.
It gives correct idea of substituents and adulterants.
It confirms purity of drug.
It helps in fixing location of constituents.
Demerits/Disadvantages
Time consuming method.
Skilled person is required for experimentation.
Costly method.
Does not give much more information about quality of drugs.
Little application in unorganised drugs and oils.
Q 6. Write a note on “physical method of evaluation”.
In this method physical properties of drugs are studied. The experimental observations are compared with standard information. The variations in these two indicate pure nature of the sample. The following are physical properties of drugs useful in physical evaluation.
Viscosity: Viscosity can be studied for oils and semiliquids. If the oil undergoes rancidity, condensation, the viscosity increases.
Density: Adulterated oils have different densities than genuine oils.
Optical activity: It helps in identifying the adulterants in the drug by considering changes in optical rotation.
Refractive index: It is used in identification of volatile oils, fixed oils, fats, resins. The refractive index may change as per temperature, pressure and light.
Melting point and boiling point: Purity of drug is related to MP and BP. Hence BP and MP help in identification and establishing purity of drugs.
Moisture content: Estimation of moisture content is the estimation of H2O content present in the drug. In case of moisture sensitive drugs definite moisture content is necessary. Hence it should be determined and controlled. The moisture control is necessary to prevent the destruction of crude drug due to chemical change or due to microbial contamination.
Ash value (Ash content): Ash is a residue left after complete ignition of drug. It is expressed as % of ash collected on complete ignition of drug and compared with standard value to observe presence of impurity.
Extractive value: The drug is extracted with organic solvents like water, alcohol, ether. Extractive values are important in identifying and determination of purity of drug.
Merits/Advantages of Physical Evaluation
Useful for organised and unorganised drugs.
Mainly applicable to unorganised, semisolids and liquids.
Vegetative adulteration can be examined.
Purity of drugs can be examined.
Standard values of physical constants are available in official books.
Demerits/Disadvantages of Physical Evaluation
Costly method.
Time consuming method.
The observation changes depending upon experimental conditions.
It does not give information about quality of drugs.
Skilled person is required to handle analytical equipment.
Q 7. Write a note on “chemical method” of drug evaluation.
This method helps in determining chemical nature and chemical composition of drug.
Objectives:
Determination of active chemical constituents.
Determination of other chemical constituents.
Determination of % of active constituents.
Establishing quality of drug.
Confirmation of variety of drug.
Confirmation of adulterant, if present.
The chemical method involves three parts:
Solubility: The solubility has more importance in the cases of unorganised drugs and oils. Solubility is important step in identification of drugs. The observations are noted in terms of freely soluble, soluble, sparingly soluble, insoluble, etc. For example, alkaloids and glycosides are soluble in alcohol. Carbohydrates and gums are completely soluble in water. Thus solubility helps in identification of drug and adulterant.
Qualitative chemical test: These are the simple chemical tests performed in order to identify various chemical constituents present in the drug. The drugs are powdered and treated with one or more reagents in a proper sequence and observations are noted, e.g. hydrolysable tannins give blue colour with FeCl3 solution and condensed tannins give green/black colour with FeCl3 solution.
Quantitative chemical analysis method: In this method % of active constituent is determined.
Assay: The estimation of percentage purity of the active chemical constituent is known as assay.
The important types of chemical assay are:
Volumetric assay:
Acid–base titration
Redox titration
Complexometric titration
Precipitation titration.
Gravimetric assay.
Potentiometric assay.
Colourimetric assay.
Merits/Advantages of Chemical Method
The experiments have a great accuracy.
No chances of personal variation.
Presence of chemical constituents in amounts can be determined.
Confirmation to variety of drugs and adulterants present can be obtained.
It determines the quality and purity of drugs.
It helps in judging pharmacological actions of the drugs.
This method gives guidelines for extraction of crude drugs with the help of solubility.
Demerits/Disadvantages of Chemical Method
Requires heavy instrumentation, so costly method.
Skilled persons are required for experimental work.
The pharmacological action predictable should be confirmed by using biological method.
Q 8. Write a note on “biological method” of evaluation.
In this method the experimentation is carried on biological system,
i.e. living organisms.
Objectives
To study quantitative action of drugs.
To study toxic effects of drugs.
To study synergistic effects or antagonist effects of drugs.
Depending upon experimental animals biological methods can be divided as follows:
Bioassay: The estimation of potency of active constituent of crude drugs by means of its effect on living organisms is called bioassay.
The bioassay can be studied using experimental animals or isolated tissues, e.g. heart and blood vessels—frog, eye—rabbit, respiration—dog.
The drugs are administered in the above animals in a particular dilutions with specific doses and the quantitative effects are observed.
Bacteriological assay method: In this method the drug is evaluated by taking the actions of drugs on the growth of bacteria.
In this method a pure strain of microorganisms is introduced in nutrient medium and system is incubated at 37°C for sufficient length of time.
A series of solution of various dilutions are prepared. The selected dilutions are administered in the nutrient medium in a definite doses.
The system is again incubated and effects are noted.
Merits/Advantages Biological Method of Evaluation
It helps in determination of potency of drug.
It also helps in determination of ED50 and LD50.
Effect on various systems can be studied.
It gives idea about quality of drugs.
Synergistic agents and antagonists can be find out.
Toxic effects of drug can be find out.
Used when other methods of evaluation cannot be used.
Demerits/Disadvantages Biological Method of Evaluation
Very complicated method.
Costly method.
Time consuming method.
Skilled person is required for experimentation.
Does not given an idea about morphological, physical or chemical properties of drugs.
Animals are required for experimentation.
Q 9. How moisture content is useful in evaluation of drugs?
Moisture content means amount of water content present in the drug.
Water is essential component of living organisms but some drugs are less stable in water.
In case of the moisture sensitive drugs, definite moisture is necessary.
The moisture control is necessary to prevent the destruction of crude drugs either due to chemical change or due to microbial contamination.
Excessive presence of water may lead to fungal and microbial growth, affecting chemical nature of drug, stability and pharmacological action.
Moisture content can be determined by:
Heating the drug in an oven at 100°C until the weight is constant.
Karl Fisher reagent is used to determine moisture content.
Q 10. Explain “ash value” (ash content).
Ash is a residue after complete ignition of the drug.
In experiment a carefully weighed quantity of a drug is taken into porcelain crucible and it is burned completely.
Ash collected is heated at 450°C to remove organic content of drug.
Heating is continued till two constants weight of the ash are obtained, then the percentage of change in weight is calculated.
Importance of ash value:
It helps in identification of drugs.
It helps in deciding purity of drug.
It helps in detecting the adulteration and substitutions.
Acid insoluble ash: It is the % of ash which is insoluble in diluted HCl.
Water soluble ash: When above observation fails, the ash is treated with water and % of water soluble ash is calculated.
Q 11. How “extractive values” are helpful in drug evaluation?
Extraction of drug is done with solvents such as water, alcohol, ether. Extractive values are important in identification of drugs and determination of purity of drugs.
Water soluble extractive value: The drugs containing carbohydrates, plant acids, tannins are tested for their solubility in water.
Alcohol soluble extractive value: The drugs containing alkaloids, resins, glycosides are tested for their solubility in 90% alcohol.
Ether soluble extractive value: It is important for the drugs containing volatile oils, fixed oils and colouring matter.
Q 12. Define bark. What are various shapes/types of barks?
Bark
Barks are the external tissues of stems.
Types of Barks
Flat barks: The barks are collected from large plants and show flat surface, e.g. Arjuna bark.
Curved barks: The barks are collected from primary branches of stems, e.g. Ashoka.
External (flat) surface Internal surface
External (flat) surface Internal surface
Recurved barks: The barks are collected from primary branches containing the more soft tissues. The shape can be
External (flat) surface Internal surface
explained as concavity on the external surface, e.g. Kurchi.
Channeled barks: The barks
are collected from secondary branches of the stem. The curvature is more but the ends
are not meeting each others, e.g. Cascara.
Double quilled barks: Two ends of bark are quilled, e.g. cascara in rare cases.
Compound quilled barks: One quill is inserted in other quilled,
e.g. Cinnamon.
External (flat) surface
Internal surface
External (flat) surface Internal surface
External (flat) surface
Internal surface
Q 13. Define fractures. Explain various types of fractures.
Fractures
Fractures are the transverse broken surfaces of the bark.
Types of Fractures
Short fracture: The surface is smooth, e.g. Kurchi bark.
Granular fracture: The surface shows small circular elevations, e.g. wild cherry bark.
Fibrous fracture: Fibre like materials project out on breaking the drug, e.g. cinchona, ginger.
Fracture
Fracture
Fibrous Fracture
Sphintary fracture: The surface shows various levels or steps, e.g. Cinnamon bark.
Laminated fracture: The drug cannot be broken in single plane, e.g. Quassia root.
Fracture
Q 14. Write the diagnostic characteristics of leaf (leaf constants) (microscopic constants)
Stomatal number: It is the average number of stomata present per square mm of the epidermis.
Stomatal index: It is the percentage which the number of stomata forms to the total number of epidermal cells.
I = S × 100
E + S
I = Stomatal index
S = Number of stomata per unit area E = Epidemal cell in the same area
Vein islet number: It is the number of vein islets per sq. mm of leaf surface.
Palisade ratio: It is the average number of palisade cells, beneath one epidermal cell, using four continuous epidermal cells for count.
Pharmacological Grouping of Natural Drugs
Q 1. Define the term laxatives. Name the four drugs used as laxative.
Laxatives: The drugs which promote defecation are called laxatives.
Drugs: Aloe, senna, castor oil, rhubarb, ispaghula.
Laxatives: These are categorised as:
Laxatives: It means elimination of soft formed stools, e.g.
senna, isapgol, liquid-paraffin.
Purgatives: It means more evacuation of stools, e.g. castor oil, aloe, rhubarb.
Drastics: They act intensely by irritating the mucous membrane of the intestine, e.g. jalap, podophyllum.
Hydrogogue: It means the substances which produce fluid
motions, e.g. cotton oil, colocynth.
Q 2. Give the synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of the following crude drugs: a. Senna, b. Aloe, c. Castor oil, d. Rhubarb, e. Ispaghula.
Senna
Synonyms: Sonamukhi, Tinevelly senna, Indian senna.
Biological source: It consists of dried leaflets of Cassia angustifolia vahl.
Family: Leguminosae.
Chemical constituents: Senna contains anthraquinone glycosides.
Sennoside A
Sennoside B
58
Sennoside C
Sennoside D
Sennidin
Rhein
Emodin
Aloe-emodin.
Uses: Senna leaves are used as laxatives.
Substitutes and adulterants:
Dog senna
Arabian senna.
Aloe
Synonyms: Korphad, musabbar, kumari.
Biological source: Aloe is the dried juice of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis miller.
Family: Liliaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Aloin
Barbaloin
Isobarbaloin
Aloe-emodin
-barbaloin
Resin contains aloesin.
Uses:
Aloe is used as purgative.
Used in cosmetics as protective.
Stimulates the growth of hairs.
Also applied for painful inflammations.
Castor oil
Synonyms: Oleum ricini, ricinus oil.
Biological source: Castor oil is a fixed oil obtained by the cold
expression of the seeds of Ricinus communis.
Family: Euphorbiaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Ricinoleic acid
Isoricinoleic acid
Linoleic acid
Isostearic acid
Stearic acid.
Uses:
Castor oil is used as a cathartic/purgative.
As lubricant.
Used in preparations of paints, enamel, varnishes, grease, polishes, printing ink.
Used in cosmetics.
Rhubarb
Synonyms: Radix, rhein, rheum
Biological source: Rhubarb consists of dried rhizome of Rheum emodi Wall.
Family: Polygonaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Rhein
Emodin
Chrysophanol
Glucorhein
Palmidin A, B, C
Uses:
Bitter stomachic
Purgative
Ispaghula
Synonyms: B. psyllium, Isabgol, plantago.
Biological source: It consists of dried seeds of the plant known as
Plantago ovata.
Family: Plantaginaceae
Chemical constituents:
Mucilage, contains natural dietary fibre
Pentosan
Aldobionic acid
Fixed oil, proteins.
Uses:
The husk of the seeds used as demulcent, laxative, emollient and treatment of chronic constipation.
Used in amoebic and bacillary dysentery
Reduce cholesterol level
Mucilage of Isapgol used as a stabilizer in the ice-cream industry.
Swelling factor test: Swelling factor means quantitative swelling due to mucilage present in the drug.
Test: Put 1 gm of drug in the measuring cylinder (25 ml capacity) in 20 ml water with occasional shaking. The volume occupied by the seeds after 24 hours of swelling is measured.
Swelling factors for isapgol seed is 10 to 14.
Q 3. Define cardiotonics. Give four examples.
Cardiotonics: The drugs which increase the force of contraction of cardiac muscles and stimulate the overall activity of heart are called cardiotonics, e.g. digitalis, strophanthus, squill, Arjuna bark.
Q 4. Give the synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of: a. Digitalis, b. Arjuna.
Digitalis
Synonyms: Fox glove leaves, digitalis leaves.
Biological source: Digitalis consists of dried leaves of digitalis purpurea dried at a temperature below 60°C, immediately after collecting the leaves.
Family: Scrophulariaceae.
Chemical constituents: Digitalis contains cardiac glycosides:
Digoxin
Digitoxin
Gitoxin
Digitoxigenin
Digitonin
Gitonin
Digoxigenin
Purpurea glycosides A and B.
Uses:
It is used as a cardiotonic
In the treatment of congestive heart failure.
Arjuna
Synonyms: Arjuna bark.
Biological source: Arjuna consists of dried stem bark of the plant known as Terminalia arjuna Rob.
Family: Combretaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Tannins (15%)
Arjunolic acid
Saponin
Ellagic acid
Arjunic acid.
Arjunin
Arjunine
Arjunetine
Uses of Arjuna:
Used as a cardiotonic
It is also used as a styptic and antidysenteric
Arjuna bark is used extensively in tanneries and also as timber.
it is also used as febrifugal, diuretic.
Squill (Indian Squill/Urginea)
Synonyms: Jangli pyaj, sea onion, scilla.
Biological source: It consists of dried slices of the bulbs of Urginea indica Kunth.
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical constituents: Indian squill contains about 0.3% of cardiac glycosides.
The major cardiac glycosides found are:
Scillaren A
Scillaren B
Scillandin
Scilliroside
Scilliphenoside
It also contains glucoscillaren A and an enzyme scillarenase.
Uses:
It is used as cardiotonic, stimulant and also an expectorant.
It is diuretic in small doses.
In larger doses, it is used as emetic and cathartic.
C CARMINATIVES AND GASTROINTESTINAL REGULATORS
Q 5. What are carminatives and GIT regulators? Give examples.
Carminatives: The drugs which expel the flatulence and gas from the gastrointestinal tract are called carminatives, e.g. fennel, coriander, cardamom, clove, cinnamon, caraway.
Gastrointestinal regulators: The drugs which regularise the activity of gastrointestinal tract are called GI regulators, e.g. fennel, coriander, cinnamon, caraway.
The gastrointestinal regulators include stomachics, stimulants, aromatics, sialogogue, cholagogues, antiemetics, appetizers.
Q 5A. Write in brief about “Umbelliferae” family group of drug.
The plant family umbelliferae is characterized by the shape of its
flowers like umbrella.
Umbrella is the Latin word means “little shade” and the flowers
looks like umbrellas.
Characteristics of Umbelliferae Family
Umbelliferae family is easily identified by its characteristic umbel flower head.
The flowers are normally small and actinomorphic.
Umbels are always five petals and five sepals on the flower.
The inflorescences are usually compound or simple umbels.
This plant family performs cross-pollination.
The fruits of this family separate at maturity into two dry segments.
The fruit is called the schizocarp.
The stems of the family are hollow.
The leaves are alternate and pinnate.
The characteristics umbels on these plants attract an excessive
range of flies, mosquitoes, moths, butterflies and other insects.
Examples of Umbelliferous Drugs
Fennel, coriander, ajowan, asafoetida.
Q 5B. What are umbelliferous fruits? Write the morphological characters of umbelliferous fruit along with diagram.
Umbelliferous fruits: The drugs which belong to family umbelliferae are called umbelliferous fruits, e.g. fennel, coriander, asafoetida, ajowan.
Morphological Characteristics of Umbelliferous Fruits
Schizocarp (splitting fruit): Dry fruits from syncarpus ovary that splits at maturity into two portions.
Mericarp: Each portion of schizocarp (cremocarp) is called mesocarp.
Two mericarps join together by a thread-like structure called carpophore.
Primary ridges are 5 or more runs from apex to base.
Each mericarp has a disc-like structure at the apex called stylopod.
Each mericarp has 2 surfaces, i.e.
Outer dorsal or curved surface
Inner ventral or commissural surface.
Each mericarp contains 6 vittae. 04 on dorsal surface and 02 on commissural surface.
Each mericarp contains a single seed.
The single seed contains:
An apex
Endosperm
An umbelliferous fruit contains volatile oils.
Q 6. Give the synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of following crude drugs: a. Ginger, b. Fennel,
c. Coriander, d. Clove, e. Asafoetida, f. Nutmeg, g. Black pepper, h. Ajowan, i. Cinnamon, j. Cardamom
Ginger
Synonyms: Gingerin, zingiber, zingiberis.
Biological source: Ginger consists of rhizomes of Zingiber
officinale.
Family: Zingiberaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Gingerol like shogaols, zingerone, gingediols
Zingiberene
Volatile oils (1–4%).
Uses:
Stomachic
Carminative
Stimulant
Flavouring agents.
Ginger oil is used in mouthwashes, ginger-beverages and liquors.
Fennel
Synonyms: Saunf, Fructus foeniculum, Badishep.
Biological source: Fennel consists of dried ripe fruits of the plant known as Foeniculum vulgare.
Family: Umbelliferae.
Chemical constituents:
Fenchone
Anethole
Phellandrene
Limonene
Anisidic aldehyde.
Uses:
Carminative
Aromatic
Stimulant
Expectorant
Flavouring agent.
Coriander
Synonyms: Coriander fruits, Dhania.
Biological source: It consists of fully dried ripe fruits of the plant known as Coriandrum sativum linn.
Family: Umbelliferae.
Chemical constituents:
Geraniol
Pinene
L-borneol
D-linalool (coriandrol)
Coriandryl acetate.
L-borneol
Uses:
Aromatic
Carminative
Stimulant
Flavouring agents.
Clove
Synonyms: Clove flower, clove buds, lavang, laung, caryophyllum.
Biological source: It consists of dried flower buds of Eugenia
caryophyllus.
Family: Myrtaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Eugenol
Eugenol acetate
Caryophyllenes
Volatile oil (15 to 20%)
Eugenin.
Uses:
Dental analgesic
Carminative
Stimulant
Flavouring agent
Aromatic
Antiseptic
The oil is used in perfumery and also in manufacture of vanillin
Asafoetida
Synonyms: Devils dung, hing, gum asafoetida.
Biological source: Asafoetida is the oleo-gum resin obtained by making incision from living rhizomes and roots of Ferula foetida.
Family: Umbelliferae.
Chemical constituents:
Ferulic acid
Umbelliferone
Resin (40 to 65%)
Gum (20 to 25%)
Volatile oil (4 to 20%).
Uses:
Carminative
Nervine tonic
Flavouring agent
Intestinal antiseptic
In veterinary medicine.
Nutmeg
Synonyms: Banda soap, Jayphal, Myristica, Nux moschata.
Biological source: Nutmeg consists of dried kernels of seeds of
Myristica fragrans.
Family: Myristicaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Myristicin
Elemicin
Saffrole
Myristic, palmitic, oleic, lauric acids.
Uses:
Aromatic
Stimulant
Carminative
Flavouring agent
Used in soap industries (nutmeg butter)
In the treatment of rheumatism.
Black Pepper (S. 96)
Synonyms: Kali mirri, Kali mirch.
Biological source: It consists of dried unriped fruits of Piper nigrum.
Family: Piperaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Piperine
Volatile oil (1 to 2.5%)
Resin (6%)
Piperidine
Starch
Phellandrene
Caryophyllene
Uses:
Aromatic
Stimulant
Stomachic
Carminative
As a condiment
Used as a spice due to pungent taste.
Ajowan
Synonyms: Carum copticum hieren, Bishop’s weed.
Biological source: Ajowan consists of dried ripe fruits of plant,
Tachyspermum ammi.
Family: Umbelliferae.
Chemical constituents:
Volatile oil contains thymol (35 to 60%)
P-cymene (50 to 55%)
Terpinene
Pinene
Dipentenes
Thymol.
Uses:
Antispasmodic
Stimulant
Carminative
In the treatment of sore throat, bronchitis
Antiseptic, insecticide, antifungal and anthelmintic.
Cinnamon
Synonyms: Kalmi-dalchini, ceylon cinnamon.
Biological source: It consists of dried inner bark of shoots of coppiced tree of Cinnamomum zeylanicum.
Chemical constituents:
Volatile oil (0.5 to 1%)
Tannins (phlobatannins) 1.2%
Cinnamaldehyde
Eugenol
Benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde
Phellandrene, pinene, cymene, caryophyllene.
Uses:
Carminative, stomachic, mild astringent
Flavouring agent, stimulants, aromatic, antiseptic
As a spice and condiment
Also used in preparation of candy, dentrifices, perfumes.
Cardamom
Synonyms: Elaichi, cardamom fruits, velchi
Biological source: It consists of dried ripe fruits of Elettaria cardamomum.
Family: Zingiberaceae
Chemical constituents:
Vol. oil (2 to 8%)
Cineole
Borneol, terpene
Terpinyl acetate
Uses:
Aromatic
Carminative
Stimulant
Flavouring agent
As a spice and condiment.
Q 7. What are astringents? Give examples.
Astringents: Astringents are the drugs, which cause precipitation of protein.
They are capable of arresting haemorrhages and reducing secretions of mucous membranes of stomach or intestine by precipitating proteins.
Astringents are used as styptic and antidiarrhoeal agents. Natural astringents may be of:
Vegetable: Tannic acid, myrobalan, black catechu, pale catechu.
Minerals: Copper and zinc.
Q 8. Give the synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of following crude drugs: a. Black catechu, b. Pale catechu, c. Myrobalan, d. Galls.
Black Catechu
Synonyms: Kattha, Khair
Biological source: It consists of dried aqueous extracts prepared from heart wood of Acacia catechu wild.
Family: Leguminosae.
Chemical constituents:
It contains about 10% of acacatechin.
Quercetin
Gum
Catechu red
Quercitrin.
Uses:
It is used as astringents
Used in cough and diarrhoea
It has cooling and digestive properties.
Used in dying and tanning industries.
Pale Catechu
Synonyms: Gambier, Gambir.
Biological source: It is dried aqueous extracts of leaves and young shoots of Uncaria gambir.
Family: Rubiaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Catechin
Catechu tannic acid
Catechu red
Gambier fluorescein.
Quercetin
Uses:
In the treatment of diarrhoea.
Local astringent in the form of lozenges.
Mainly used in dyeing and tanning industries.
Myrobalan
Synonyms: Chebulic myrobalan, Harde, Haritaki
Biological source: It consists of dried ripe and fully matured fruits of Terminalia chebula Retzr.
Family: Combretaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Myrobalan fruits are an important source of tannins.
It contains hydrolysable tannins.
It contains chebulic acid, chebulagic, chebulinic, ellagic and gallic acids.
Uses:
It is mainly used as an astringent, laxative, stomachic and tonic.
It is also used as anthelmintic
Fruit pulp is used to cure bleeding.
It is used as an ingredient of Ayurvedic preparation “Triphala churna”.
Commercially myrobalan is used in dying and tannic industry.
Myrobalan is used in the treatment of piles and external ulcers.
Galls
Synonyms: Galla, Nutgall, Turkey galls, Aleppo galls, Blue galls.
Biological source: Galls are vegetable outgrowths formed on the twigs of dyer’s oak.
Family: Fagaceae.
Method of Preparation of Galls
Dyer’s oak plant is 2 m in height or shrub.
The “Gall-wesp” lay eggs on the twigs in early summer.
Larvae come out from the eggs and enter into the soft epidermis near the growing point of the twigs.
The larvae secrete an enzyme from its mandible which stimulates abnormal development of vegetable tissues around the larvae.
During this process there is a rapid conversion of starch in the surrounding tissues into sugars which stimulate the cell division.
Shrinkage of tissue takes place due to disappearing of starch and a central cavity is formed in which development of larvae and pupae takes place.
The larva remains in the galls for 5 to 6 months.
The mature insect bores the covering of the galls and escapes.
The colour of galls changes from bluish-grey to white during this process.
The galls are collected before escaping the insect.
Chemical Constituents
Galls contain tannin known as gallotannic acid (50–70%).
It also contains gallic acid, ellagic acid, -sitosterol, nyctanthic acid, roburic acid and syringic acid.
Uses:
Galls are used as astringent, for tanning and dyeing and in the manufacture of inks and tannic acid.
E DRUGS ACTING ON CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
CNS stimulants: The drugs which stimulate the brain and spinal cord are called CNS stimulants, e.g. Nux vomica, Lobelia.
CNS depressants: The drugs which depress the activities of CNS are called CNS depressants, e.g. opium, ashwagandha, cannabis.
Opium
Synonym: Raw opium.
Biological source: It is the dried latex obtained by incisions from unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum linn.
Family: Papaveraceae.
Chemical constituents:
Narcotine
Papaverine
Morphine
Codeine
Thebaine
Noscapine.
Uses:
Narcotic analgesic
Hypnotic and sedative
Codeine is used as antitussive.
Used as diaphoretic and in diarrhoea.
Hyoscyamus
Synonym: Henbane.
Biological source: It consists of dried leaves and flowering tops
of Hyoscymus niger.
Family: Solanaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Hyoscyamine
Atropine
Hyoscine (scopolamine).
Uses:
It relieves spasms of urinary tract.
It is used as sedative
As expectorant, antispasmodic, antiasthmatic.
Belladonna
Synonyms: Belladonna leaf, deadly nightshade leaf.
Biological source: It consists of dried leaves of Atropa belladonna.
Family: Solanaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Atropine
Hyoscyamine
Hyoscine
Homatropine.
Uses:
It is used as anticholinergic
It is used as antidote in opium and chloral hydrate poisoning
Antispasmodic.
Aconite
Synonyms: Aconite root, Bachnag, Monkshood.
Biological source: It is the dried root of Aconitum napellus.
Family: Ranunculaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Aconitine
Hypoaconitine
Neopelline
Aconitic acid.
Aconine
Neoline
Uses:
Externally in the form of liniment in treatment of neuralgia,
sciatica, rheumatism and inflammation.
It is also used as analgesic and cardiac depressant.
Ashwagandha
Synonyms: Withania root, Asgandh, Indian Ginseng.
Biological source: It consists of dried roots and stem bases of
Withania somnifera.
Family: Solanaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Withanine
Withaferine
Withanolides
Anaferine
Cuscohygrine
Withasomnine
Vasamine.
Uses:
It has sedative and hypnotic effect.
It is hypotensive and depressant.
It is used in the treatment of gout, rheumatism and hypertension.
Antispasmodic and anthelmintic.
Cannabis
Synonyms: Cannabis indica, Indian hemp, ganja, marijuana.
Biological source: Cannabis consists of dried flowering tops of
cultivated female part of Cannabis sativa linn.
Family: Cannabinaceae (moraceae).
Chemical constituents:
Cannabinol
Cannabigerol
Tetrahydro cannabinol (THC)
Cannabidiol.
Cannabidiolic acid
Cannabichromene
Uses:
It is used as narcotic sedative and analgesic.
Psychotropic properties.
Ephedra
Synonym: Ma huang.
Biological source: It consists of dried young stems of Ephedra gerardina Wall.
Family: Ephedraceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains alkaloids such as:
Ephedrine
Norephedrine
Pseudoephedrine.
Uses:
As a bronchodilator in asthma.
In treatment of allergic conditions like hay fever, whooping cough.
Nux Vomica
Synonym: Crow-fig.
Biological source: It consists of dried ripe seeds of Strychnos nuxvomica linn.
Family: Loganiaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains bitter indole alkaloids.
Strychnine
Brucine
Vomicine
Pseudo-strychnine.
Uses
As a bitter stomachic and tonic
It is a CNS stimulant
It increases blood pressure and recommended in certain forms of cardiac failure.
Datura
Synonym: Datura herb.
Biological source: It consists of dried leaves and flowering tops
of Datura metel.
Family: Solanaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Hyoscine (scopolamine)
Atropine
Uses:
Parasympathetic depressant
In the treatment of asthma and cough.
Antispasmodic
CNS depressant
Atropine and hyoscine are used in ophthalmic practice to dilate the pupil of eye.
Tea Leaves
Synonym: Camellia thea
Biological source: It contains the prepared leaves and leaf buds of
Thea sinensis linn.
Family: Theaceae
Chemical constituents: It contains.
Caffeine
Theophylline
Theobromine
Gallotannic acid
Tea leaves also contain an enzymatic mixture called theine.
Uses:
Tea leaves are used as CNS stimulant in the form of beverage.
It is also used as diuretic.
Coffee Seeds
Synonyms: Coffee, Coffee bean.
Biological source: It is the dried riped seed of Coffea arabica Linne.
Family: Rubiaceae
Chemical constituents: It contains
Caffeine
Tannins
Caffeotannic acid
Uses:
It is used as CNS stimulant and diuretic.
Synonym: Coca
Biological source: It consists of dried leaves of Erythroxylon coca.
Family: Erythroxylaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Cocaine
Cinnamyl cocaine
Ropocaine
Benzoyltropine
Dihydroxytropane
Benzoylecgonine
Ecgonine
Uses:
Cocaine is used as a local anaesthetic.
Coca leaves are used as a stimulant, restorative.
Coca leaves are also used in convulsions.
Due to its hallucinogenic and addictive effect, its uses are limited to ophthalmic surgery and surgery of ear, nose and throat.
Q 9. What are antihypertensives? Describe the drug rauwolfia.
Antihypertensives
Antihypertensives are the drugs, which lower elevated blood pressure
to normal level, e.g. rauwolfia.
Rauwolfia
Synonyms: Sarpagandha, chhota chand, snake root, serpentine root
Biological source: Rauwolfia consists of dried roots of the plant
known as Rauwolfia serpentina Benth.
Family: Apocyanaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Reserpine is an important alkaloid
Oleoresin
Phytosterol
Other alkaloids are ajmaline, ajmalicine, rauwolfinine, rescinnamine, reserpinine, serpentine, etc.
Antihypertensive
To treat mild essential hypertension
It has tranquillizing effect used in mild anxiety conditions.
In the treatment of snake-bite.
Q 10. What are antitussives? Give examples of antitussives.
Antitussives
Antitussives are the drugs used to assist in the removal of secretion or exudate from the trachea, bronchi or lungs and hence are useful in treatment of cough, e.g. Vasaka, Tolu Balsam, Tulsi.
Q 11. Give the synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of following crude drugs: a. Vasaka, b. Tolu Balsam,
c. Tulsi.
Vasaka
Synonyms: Adulsa, Adhatoda.
Biological source: Vasaka consists of dried as well as fresh leaves of the plant Adhatoda vasica nees.
Family: Acanthaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Vasicine
Vasicinone
6-hydroxy vasicine
It contains volatile oil betain and vasakin.
Adhatodine
Uses:
Antitussive
Expectorant
Bronchodilator.
Tolu Balsam
Synonym: Balsam of tolu.
Biological source: Balsam of tolu is solid or semisolid balsam obtained from the trunk of trees Myroxilon balsamum Linn.
Family: Leguminosae.
Cinnamic acid 8%
Benzoic acid 7.6%
Benzyl benzoate
Benzyl cinnamate.
Vanillin
Toluresinotannol.
Uses:
Expectorant and flavouring agent
Antiseptic
Common ingredient in cough mixtures.
Used in preparation of confectionery, chewing gums and perfumery.
Tulsi
Synonyms: Sacred basil, Holy basil.
Biological source: Tulsi consists of fresh and dried leaves of
Ocimum sanctum Linn.
Family: Labiatae.
Chemical constituents:
Eugenol 70%
Carvacrol 3%
Eugenol-methyl-ether 20%
Fixed oil
It also contains traces of alkaloid, saponin, tannin, small amount of vitamin C, traces of maleic, oleic, tartaric acid.
Caryophylline.
Uses:
Oil is used as antibacterial and insecticidal
Leaves used as stimulant.
Q 12. What are antirheumatics? Give examples of antirheumatics.
Antirheumatics: The drugs used to relieve or used in treatment of rheumatism are known as antirheumatics.
Rheumatism is an inflammatory condition characterized by soreness, stiffness of muscles and pain in joints (arthritis), e.g. Guggul, Colchicum.
Q 13. Give the synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of following drugs: a. Guggul, b. Colchicum.
Guggul (Indian bdellium)
Synonyms: Scented bdellium, Gum guggul.
Biological source: Guggul is the oleo-gum-resin obtained by the incision of the bark of plant Commiphora weightii.
Family: Burseraceae.
Chemical constituents:
Steroids
Diterpenoids
Carbohydrates and aliphatic esters
Myrecene
Caryophylline
Z-guggulosterene
E-guggulo-sterone.
Guggulsterol I, II, III.
Uses:
Anti-inflammatory
Antirheumatic
Hypolipidemic
Hypocholesteremic.
Colchicum
Synonyms: Colchicum seeds.
Biological source: Colchicum consists of dried seeds of the plant
Colchicum luteum Baker.
Family: Liliaceae.
Chemical constituents:
It contains 0.2 to 1% of colchicine
Demecolcine
Colchicoresin
Starch.
Uses:
Gout and rheumatism
It controls the malignant tumour
Used in horticulture.
Q 14. What are antitumour drugs? Give example.
Antitumour drugs are the drugs used in treatment of tumour/cancer. Tumour is defined as abnormal or uncontrolled cellular multiplication in neoplasm, e.g. vinca, colchicum, podophyllum.
Q 15. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of (a) Vinca, (b) Podophyllum.
Vinca
Synonyms: Vinca rosea, catharanthus, periwinkle.
Biological source: It is dried whole plant of Catharanthus roseus.
Family: Apocyanaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains indole alkaloids:
Vincristine
Vinblastine
Ajmalicine
Lochnerine
Serpentine
Vindoline
Vindolinine
Catharantuine
Uses:
It is given intravenously in treatment of acute leukaemia
It is an antineoplastic agent
It is used in the treatment of Hodgkin’s disease
It also exhibits hypotensive and antidiabetic activity.
Podophyllum
Synonyms: Indian podophyllum, Podophyllum radix, Himalayan May-apple.
Biological source: Podophyllum consists of dried rhizomes and roots of Podophyllum hexandrum Royle.
Family: Berberidaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains 7 to 15% of resin.
Podophyllin
Podophyllotoxin
a and b peltatins
Querectin
Kaemferol
Asiragalin
Etoposide
Uses:
It is used as anticancer (cytotoxic)
Due to its cytotoxic action, it is used in the treatment of venereal and other warts.
It is also used as purgative, cholegogue and bitter tonic.
Q 16. What are antileprotics? Give example.
Antileprotics are the drugs used in treatment of leprosy, e.g. Chaulmoogra oil, Brahmi.
Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by microorganism known as Mycobacterium leprae.
Q 17. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of the following drugs.
Chaulmoogra Oil
Synonyms: Hydnocarpus oil, Gynocardia oil.
Biological source: It is the fixed oil obtained by cold expression
method from ripe seeds of the plant Hydnocarpus anthelmintica.
Family: Flacourtriaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Chaulmoogric acid (27%)
Hydnocarpic acid (48%)
Glycerides of palmitic acid.
Uses:
It is used as antileprotic (in leprosy)
In tuberculosis
Psoriasis
Rheumatism
It has bactericidal effect against Mycobacterium leprae and
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Q 18. What are antidiabetics? Give examples of antidiabetic drugs.
Antidiabetics are the drugs used to reduce elevated blood sugar level to normal level, e.g. Pterocarpus, Gymnema.
Q 19. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of the following drugs.
Pterocarpus
Synonyms: Bijasal, Indian kino tree, Malabar kino, Rakta-chandan.
Biological source: It consists of dried juice of plant Pterocarpus marsupium linn.
Family: Leguminosae.
Chemical constituents:
Kinnotannic acid 70–80% (glucosidal tannin)
Kino red (it is anhydride of kinoin)
Catechol
Gallic acid
Kinoin
Uses:
Antidiabetic
It is used as powerful astringent.
In treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery.
Used in dyeing, tanning and printing industries.
Used in passive haemorrhage and toothache.
Gymnema
Synonyms: Gudmar, Madhunashni.
Biological source: It consists of leaves of perennial woody climber plant known as Gymnema sylvestre.
Family: Asclepiadaoceae
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Pentriacontrane
Phytin
a and b chlorophylls
Gymnemic acid.
It is used as antidiabetic iv. Laxative
Stomachic v. Diuretic
Stimulant
Q 20. What are antidysenteric drugs? Give examples.
Antidysenteric drugs: These are the drugs used in treatment of dysentery, e.g. Ipecacuanha, kurchi.
The term dysentery is a combination of two words, namely dys
means bad or difficult, enteron means intestine.
In dysenteric conditions the inflammation of the colonic mucosa
occurs which leads to passage of blood and mucus.
Depending on the type of invading parasite, dysenteric condition is grouped in various types:
Anaerobic dysentery: It occurs due to Entamoeba histolytica which infects the large intestine. Parasite invades the mucosa and causes ulcers. It occurs either in acute and chronic form.
Bacillary dysentery: It occurs due to various forms of dysentery bacilli, viz. Shigella. These parasites attack the mucous membrane of large intestine causes necrosis.
– It is severe than the amoebic dysentery.
Balantidal dysentery: In this type, dysentery and diarrhoea are associated with presence of a large ciliate protozoan called Balantidium coli.
Schistosomal dysentery: It occurs due to Schistosoma mansoni
species.
Q 21. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of ipecacuanha.
Ipecacuanha
Synonyms: Ipecac.
Biological source: It consists of dried roots of the rhizomes and roots of Cephaelis ipecacuanha or Cephaelis acuminata Karsten.
Family: Rubiaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Emetine, cephaline
Ipecacaunhin (saponin)
O-methyl psychotrine
Emetamine
Ipecacuanhic acid
Starch and calcium oxalate.
Uses:
Antidysentric
It is used as expectorant in small doses and emetic in higher doses
It is used in treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery
Used for isolation of emetine and cephaline.
Q 22. What are diuretics? Give examples.
Diuretics are the drugs which increase the rate of urine flow, e.g.
Gokharu, Punarnava.
Q 23. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of drugs: a. Gokharu, b. Punarnava.
Gokharu
Synonym: Puncture vine.
Biological source: It consists of dried fully ripen fruits of the plant
Tribulus terrestris Linn.
Family: Zygophyllaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Harmine and harman
Steroidal sapogenins like diosgenin
Gitogenin
Chlorogenin
Rusogenin
Kaemferol
Tribuloside.
Uses:
Synonyms: Hog weed, Rakta punarnava, Lalsabuni
Biological source: It consists of fresh, as well as dried herbs
Boerhaavia diffussa Linn.
Family: Nyctaginaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Punarnavine
Punarnavoside
Ursolic acid
Uses:
It is used as diuretic and expectorant
It is stomachic and is used in treatment of jaundice.
N ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS
Q 24. What are antiseptics and disinfectants? Give examples.
Antiseptics: These are the chemical sterilizing substances which are used to kill pathogenic microbes or for prevention of their growth,
e.g. Benzoin, Myrrh, Neem, Curcuma.
Q 25. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of drugs. a. Benzoin, b. Myrrh, c. Neem, d. Curcuma.
Benzoin
Synonyms: Sumatra benzoin, Gum benzoin, Loban.
Biological source: Benzoin is a balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin, or it contains balsamic resin from Styrox tonkinesis known as siam benzoin.
Family: Styraceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Balsamic acid and esters
Coniferyl alcohol
Coniferyl benzoate
Benzoic acid
Cinnamic acid
Sumaresinolic acid.
Uses:
It is used as irritating expectorant, carminative and diuretic.
Externally used as an antiseptic and protective.
In treatment of upper respiratory tract infection.
Used in soaps, perfumes incense, cosmetic manufacturing.
Myrrh
Synonyms: Gum myrrh, Bol myrrh.
Biological source: Myrrh is an oleo-gum-resin obtained from
Commiphora molmol Engler and from other Commiphora species.
Family: Burseraceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Resin 25 to 40%
, and camphoric acids
Terpenes
Eugenol
Cuminic aldehyde
Volatile oil.
Uses:
It is used as an antiseptic and stimulant, protective.
It is astringent to the mucous membrane
Its tincture is used in the mouthwashes and gargles.
Neem
Synonyms: Limb, Morgosa, Melia azadirachta, Nim.
Biological source: It consists of leaves and other aerial parts of
Azadirachta indica.
Family: Meliaceae.
Chemical constituents: Bitter principle “Margosine”.
Azadirachtin
Salannin, Nimbin, nimbidin
Meliantriol
Nimbosterol, Nimbiol
Quercetin
Nimbidinine, Nimaton, Nimbosterol.
Myrecetin
Diterpenes (sugiol, nimbiol)
Uses:
It is used as insect repellant, insecticide, antiseptics.
It has antifeedant and antimicrobial properties.
Seed oil has spermicidal activity.
Synonyms: Haldi, Indian saffron.
Biological source: Turmeric consists of dried as well as fresh rhizomes of the plant known as Curcuma longa linn.
Family: Zingiberaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Curcumin
Curcuminoids
Zingiberene
and curcumenes
Comphor
Camphene
Volatile oil.
Turmerone
Borneole
Turmeric oil
Uses:
It is used as antiseptic and expectorant
It is used as condiment, colouring agent
It is used for the detection of boric acid
It is used especially for ointment and creams.
Q 26. What are antimalarials? Give examples.
Antimalarials: These are the drugs which are used in prophylaxis or treatment of malaria, e.g. cinchona.
Malaria occurs due to infections by four species of a protozoan—
Plasmodium species, p. malariae, p. vivax, P. ovale, P. officinales.
Q 27. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of. a. Cinchona, b. Artemisia, c. Artemisia annuna
Cinchona
Synonyms: Jesuit’s bark, Peruvian bark.
Biological source: It is the dried bark of cultivated trees of Cinchona calisaya wedd, C. ledgeriana moens, Cinchona officinalis Linn.
Family: Rubiaceae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Quinine
Quinidine
Cinchonine
Cinchonidine
Cinchonicine
Quinicine
Quinovin
Cinchofulvic acid
Cinchotannic acid
Quinic acid
Hydrocinchonidine.
Uses:
It is used as an antimalarial and antipyretic.
It is employed as bitter stomachic and tonic.
Quinidine is used in prevention of atrial fibrillation.
It is used to treat arrhythmia and tachycardia.
It is used in rheumatism and neuralgia.
Artemisia
Synonyms: Santonica, worm seeds.
Biological source: These are the unexpanded flower heads of
Artemisia cina Berg and other species of Artemisia.
Family: Compositae
Chemical constituents: It contains.
Santonin
Artemisin
Cineole
Pinene.
Uses: Artemisia (santonica) is used as a strong anthelmintic, especially for roundworms.
Artemisia annua
Synonyms: Worm seed, qinghao.
Biological source: It consists of Chinese traditional herb Artemisia annua Linn.
Family: Asteraceae
Chemical constituents: It contains
Artemisin
Deoxyartemisin
Arteannuin A and B
Amyrin
Luteolin
-sitosterol, stigmasterol
Caryophyllene, myrecene
Uses:
Artemisin shows antimalarial effect by its rapid blood schizonticidal activity.
Artemisinic acid has antibacterial, cytotoxic and anti-
inflammatory actions.
Q 28. What are oxytocics? Give examples.
Oxytocics: These are the drugs which have stimulant effect on the
motility of the uterus, e.g. ergot alkaloid.
Q 29. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of ergot.
Ergot
Synonyms: Ergota, Ergot of Rye.
Biological source: Ergot is the dried sclerotium of a fungus
Claviceps purpurea Tulasne.
Family: Hypocreaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Ergotamine
Ergocristine, Ergocryptine
Ergometrine
Ergotaminine
Ergosinine
Ergocorninine.
Uses:
As oxytocic.
Ergotamine is used in treatment of migraine.
It is used in labour to assist delivery to reduce postpartum haemorrhage.
Life Cycle of Ergot
Ergot is a fungal growth.
Its life cycle is required to be studied so as to produce the drug
commercially by artificial means.
Ergot completes its life cycle in the following stages:
Over wintering stage
Stage of sexual reproduction
Stage of asexual reproduction
Life cycle of ergot
Explanation
The sclerotica are produced in late summer.
These sclerotica fall on the ground in autumn.
When favorable conditions for germination are available, these sclerotica germinate in the spring to produce purple coloured stalks which on further growth form flattened spherical cavities known as perithecia.
Each Ascus contains eight thread-like Ascopores.
Ascopores come out and get dispersed by air.
The dispersal of ascopores takes place at the time of flowering of
Rye plant.
Ascopores become entangled with the stigma of host and produce mycelia which penetrate through ovary.
The Mycelia give rise to conidia, produced from the surface of ovary.
The Honey-dew is sweet in taste and attracts the insects.
Along with honey-dew conidia are carried from one place to another by insects and this stage is known as Honey-dew stage.
In second stage, hyphae penetrate deeply into the ovary and develop into mass covering the entire ovary which results in formation of elongated sclerotium and is known as sclerotium stage.
Sclerotium develops further, attains maximum size and falls on ground and the cycle begins.
Q. 30. What are vitamins? Give examples.
Vitamins: These are the substances which are required for normal growth and maintenance of life of animals, e.g. shark liver oil, amla.
Q 31. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of shark liver oil.
Shark Liver Oil
Synonyms: Oleum selachoids.
Biological source: Shark liver oil is the fixed oil obtained from the fresh and carefully preserved livers of various species of the shark, mainly Hypoprion brevirostris.
Chemical constituents: It contains vitamin A and fatty acid.
Uses:
Synonyms: Emblica, Embelic myrobalan Indian gooseberry.
Biological source: It consists of dried as well as fresh fruits of the plant Emblica officinalis.
Family: Euphorbiaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
0.5% fat
Phyllemblin
5% tannin
Pectin.
Other inorganic constituents are iron, calcium, phosphorus.
Uses:
In the treatment of scurvy.
It is used as a diuretic, laxative.
Fruits are given in diarrhoea and dysentery.
They are administered in jaundice, anaemia along with iron compound.
It is given in treatment of asthma and bronchitis.
Fruits are also used in preparation of ink, hair oils and shampoo.
Q 32. What are enzymes? Give examples.
Enzymes are the protein substances, which serve a role of catalysing the biochemical reactions in living systems, e.g. diastase, yeast, papaya.
Q 33. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of: a. Diastase, b. Yeast, c. Papaya, d. Pancreatin.
Diastase
Synonyms: Amylose, malt diastase, salivary diastase.
Biological source: It is one of the amylolytic enzymes present in saliva found in digestive tract of the animals (animal diastase).
Family: Gramineae
Description:
It is yellowish white
It has faint characteristic odour
It is soluble in water forms colloidal solution.
Uses:
It is used as digestant.
Used as catalyse reactions in plant and animal.
Yeast
Yeast is a fungi which under normal conditions of growth, contains a vegetative body of simple individual cell.
Biological source: It consists of unicellular fungal microorganisms,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Family: Saccharomycetaceae.
Description:
Colour: Whitish powder
Odour: Characteristic
Size: Unicellular microorganism range less than 1.5 .
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Glycogen, fat and vitamins
Thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid
Folic acid, biotin
Enzymes like invertase, diastase, zymase.
Uses:
Used in manufacture of alcohol, beer and wines.
In bread industry.
Used as source of vitamin D.
It is a good source of protein.
Papaya
Biological source: It is cultivated fruiting tree known as Carica papaya linn.
Family: Caricaceae.
Description:
Colour—light brown or white coloured amorphous powder Odour and taste is typical
pH—5 to 6.1
Solubility: Soluble in water and glycerine.
Chymopapain
Polypeptides
Amides.
Uses:
Used in clarification of beverages
It is used as digestant and anti-inflammatory agent
It is used in textile and leather industry for dehairing of skins and hides.
Pancreatin: (Pancreases/pancrelipase)
Biological source: It is a preparation extracted from pancrease of certain animals like hog (sus scrofa var. domesticus, family— suidae) or OX (BOS taurus, family Bovidae).
Description:
It is amorphous powder with white or buff colour
It does not have a taste and odour
It is water soluble, but insoluble in alcohol and ether.
Chemical constituents: It contains enzymes, namely—amylase, lipase, protease.
Each gram of pancreatin contains not less than 12000 units of amylase activity, 1000 units of protease activity and 15000 units of lipase activity.
Uses:
It is used to treat pancreatic deficiency like pancreatitis and also in fibrocystic disease of pancreas.
It is also used for preparing peptonized or predigested food.
Pancreatin is used as digestive aid for converting starch into dextrin and sugar proteins into proteases and derived substances, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
S PERFUMES AND FLAVOURING AGENTS
Q 34. What are perfumes? Give examples.
Perfumes: It is any substance which is made from natural or synthetic materials or a combination of both, employed for creating a pleasant odour, e.g. sandalwood oil, Jasmine, Rose, Citronella.
Flavouring agents: These are the substances which are used to give a flavour to the pharmaceutical formulations, e.g. lemon oil, mint, orange, clove, lavendor, rose, peppermint oil.
Q. 35. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of following drugs: a. Peppermint oil, b. Sandalwood,
c. Lemon oil, d. Orange oil, e. Lemon grass oil.
Peppermint Oil
Synonyms: Oleum, Mentha piperita.
Biological source: Peppermint oil is the volatile oil obtained by steam distillation of the fresh flowering tops of the plant known as Mentha piperita Linn.
Family: Labiatae.
Chemical constituents:
L-menthol
Menthone
Methyl acetate
Terpene derivatives include L-limonene, cineole, pinene, camphene, isopulegone.
Uses:
It is used as carminative, aromatic.
Stimulant.
Counterirritant.
Flavouring agent.
It has antiseptic property.
Used in jellies, candles, perfumes.
Used in toothpaste and powder, shaving creams.
Sandalwood (S. 05; W. 03, 05)
Synonyms: Yellow sandalwood, lignum santali.
Biological source: It is the dried heartwood of Santalum album
Linn.
Family: Santalaceae.
Chemical constituents:
-santalol
-santalol
Santalal
Santene
Santenone
Teresantol
Santalone
Santalene.
Uses:
As a perfume in cosmetics and incense sticks.
For the treatment of dysuria.
For carvings and manufacture of boxes.
Lemon Oil
Biological source: Lemon oil is a volatile oil obtained from the fresh peel of the ripe fruits of Citrus limonis.
Family: Rutaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Lemonene
Citral
Citronellal.
Uses:
Flavouring agent
In perfumery.
Orange Oil
Synonyms: Sweet orange oil, oleum auranti.
Biological source: Orange is the volatile oil obtained from orange peels of sweet orange of Citrus sinensis.
Family: Rutaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Limonene
Cetronellal
Citral
Decanal
Uses:
As flavouring agent
In perfumery
In the preparation of terpeneless orange oil.
Lemon Grass Oil
Synonyms: East Indian lemon grass oil, Gavati chaha.
Biological source: It is a volatile oil obtained from the leaves and aerial parts of the plants Cymbopogon flexuosus.
Chemical constituents:
Citral
Methylheptenol
Nerol
Geraniol.
Uses:
Flavouring agent
In perfumery.
Q 36. Define and classify pharmaceutical aids with examples.
Pharmaceutical aids: The substances which are of little or no therapeutic value, but are essentially used in manufacturing or compounding of various pharmaceuticals are known as pharmaceutical aids.
Classification: (As per use of application)
Colour: Caramel, saffron, indigo
Diluent: Cinnamon water, sesame oil
Disintegrating agent: Starch, CMC
Emulsifying: Acacia, tragacanth and suspending agent
Flavours: Cardamom, rose, cinnamon
Lubricants: Talc, cocoa butter
Ointment bases: Beeswax, lanolin
Solvents: Alcohol, glycerine
Sweetening agents: Honey, sorbitol.
Q 37. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of following drugs: a. Acacia, b. Guar gum, c. Honey,
d. Starch, e. Tragacanth f. Agar, g. Arachis oil, h. Olive oil,
i. Lanolin.
Acacia (Indian Gum)
Synonyms: Gum acacia, Gum arabic.
Biological source: Indian gum is the dried gummy exudation obtained from the stem and branches of Acacia arabica wild.
Family: Leguminosae.
Chemical constituents:
Arabin
Arabic acid
Enzyme-oxidase.
Uses:
Demulcent
Suspending agent
Emulsifying agent
Binding agent
As a gum of choice.
Guar gum
Synonyms: Guar flour, Jaguar gum.
Biological source: Guar gum is the powder of endosperm of seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus.
Family: Leguminosae.
Chemical constituents:
Guaran
5–7% proteins.
Uses:
Binding and disintegrating agent
Bulk laxative
Appetite depressant
In peptic ulcer therapy
In paper manufacturing, printing
In food and cosmetic industries.
Honey
Synonyms: Madhu, honey purified, mel, madh.
Biological source: Honey is a sugar secretion deposited in honey comb by the bees Apis mellifica, Apis dorsata.
Family: Apidae
Chemical constituents:
Glucose, fructose and sucrose
Maltose
Gum
Traces of succinic acid
Invert sugar.
Uses:
Demulscent
Sweetening agent
Good nutrient
Antiseptic
Ingredient of common cough mixtures, cough drops
In preparation of creams, soft drinks, candies.
Starch
Synonyms: Amylum.
Biological source: Starch consists of polysaccharide granules obtained from the grains of maize, rice or wheat.
Family: Gramineae.
Chemical constituents:
-amylose
-amylose
Amylopectin.
Uses:
Nutritive
Demulcent
Protective
Absorbent
Antidote in iodine poisoning
Disintegrating agent in tablets and pills
In preparations of dusting talcum powder.
Tragacanth
Synonyms: Tragacantha, gum tragacanth.
Biological source: Tragacanth is the dried gummy exudation obtained by making incisions on stems and branches of Astragalus gummifer.
Family: Leguminosae.
Chemical constituents:
Tragacanthin
Bassorin
Tragacanthic acid.
Uses:
Demulscent and emollient in cosmetics
Also used in confectionery
Thickening, suspending and emulsifying agent
Binding agent and excipient in the pills.
Agar
Synonyms: Agar-agar, Japanese-isinglass.
Biological source: It is the dried gelatinous substance obtained from Gelidium amansii.
Family: Rhodophyceae.
Chemical constituents:
Agarose
Agaropectin.
Uses:
Emulsifying agent
Bulk laxative
In preparation of jellies, confectionery items
Used in culture medium.
Arachis Oil
Synonyms: Groundnut oil, peanut oil, sweet oil.
Biological source: It is a fixed oil expressed from the seed Kernels
of the activated varieties of Arachis hypogea.
Family: Leguminosae.
Chemical constituents:
Oleic acid
Linoleic acid
Stearic acid
Arachidic acid
Lignoceric acid
Palmitic acid.
Uses:
As a solvent for intramuscular injections
In preparation of liniments and soaps
As a lubricants
As an edible oil.
Olive Oil
Synonyms: Oleum olivae.
Biological source: It is a fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit of
Olea europoea.
Family: Oleaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Olein
Palmitin
Linolein.
Uses:
Emollient
Soothing agent
In psoriasis
As a nutritive, demulcent
Mild laxative.
Lanolin (Hydrous Wool Fat)
Synonyms: Lanolin, Adeps lanae.
Biological source: Hydrous wool fat is the purified fat-like substance obtained from the wool of the sheeps Ovis aries.
Family: Bovidae.
Chemical constituents:
Esters of cholesterol and isocholesterol
50% of water.
Uses:
As a water absorbable ointment base
As a base for water soluble creams and cosmetic preparations.
Beeswax
Synonyms: Yellow beeswax, cera-flava
Biological source: Yellow beeswax is purified wax and obtained
from honey comb of the bees Apis mellifeca.
Family: Apidae
Chemical constituents:
Myricin (myricyl palmitate)
Cerotic acid
Cerolein
Melissic acid.
Uses:
Used in preparation of ointments, plasters and polishes.
Used in manufacture of candles, moulds, lipsticks, face creams, etc.
Pectin
Biological source: Pectin is purified carbohydrate product obtained
by acid hydrolysis from inner portion of the rind of citrus peels,
i.e. Citrus limonis.
Family: Rutaceae.
Chemical constituents:
D-galactouronic acid.
Galactouronic acid
Uses:
As an adsorbent in the treatment of diarrhoea.
As a haemostatic for haemorrhage.
As an emulsifying and gelling agent.
In food industry as a thickening agent.
Used in cosmetic preparations.
Gelatin
Biological source: Gelatin is a product obtained by partial hydrolysis of collagenous material.
Chemical constituents:
Glutin (protein)
17 to 20% moisture.
Uses:
Used as a valuable dietary supplement.
In the preparation of ice-cream.
Used in confectionery.
Used in cosmetic preparations.
Used in manufacture of suppositories, capsules.
Kaolin
Synonyms: China clay, porcelain clay.
Biological source: Kaolin is obtained by powdering purified native
hydrated aluminium silicate.
Used as adsorbent in poisoning.
Used in dusting powders.
As a clarifying agent
Used in cosmetics, insecticides, paints.
Sodium Alginate
Synonym: Algin, seed-weed.
Biological source: Sodium alginate is the salt of alginic acid and is obtained from the algal growth of species like Macrocystic pyrifera.
Family: Phaeophyceae.
Chemical constituent: Alginic acid.
Uses:
In preparation of paste, creams.
Good suspending agent and thickening agent.
As a binding and disintegrating agent.
In textile industry.
Q. 38. Give synonyms, biological source, chemical constituents and uses of following drugs: a. Liquorice, b. Picrorriza,
c. Linseed oil, d. Shatavari, e. Shankhpushpi, f. Garlic,
g. Tobacco, h. Dioscorea, i. Pyrethrum.
Liquorice
Synonyms: Liquorice root, Glycyrrhiza, Mulethi, Jasthi-Madhu.
Biological source: Liquorice consists of dried peeled or unpeeled roots and stolons of the plant known as Glycyrrhiza glabra linn.
Family: Leguminosae.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Glycyrrhizin
Glycyrrhizinic acid
Glycyrrhetinic acid
Flavone glycoside
Liquiritin
Asparagine (2 to 4%) and fat.
Uses:
It is used as demulcent and mild expectorant
It is used as flavouring agent, antispasmodic
In treatment of Addison’s disease
In treatment of peptic ulcer and anti-inflammatory agent.
Picrorriza
Synonyms: Katki, Kadu, Indian gentian, Kutki.
Biological source: It consists of dried rhizomes of the plant
Picrorrhiza kurroa.
Family: Scrophulariaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Picroside I
Picroside II
Kutkoside
Vanilloyl
Trans-cinnamoyl.
Kutkin
Uses:
It is used as bitter tonic, stomachic
It is laxative, febrifuge
In treatment of jaundice
It has antibacterial effect.
Linseed Oil
Synonyms: Flax seed, Linum, Jovas.
Biological source: It consists of fixed oil obtained from the dried
fully ripe seeds of the Linum usitatassimum linn.
Family: Linaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Palmitic acid
Stearic acid
Oleaic acid
Linoleic and linolenic acid
Tocopherol and squalene.
Uses:
It is mainly for external applications as lotion and liniments
It is used in treatment of scabies and skin diseases
It is nutritive and emollient
Used for paints and varnishes.
Shatavari
Synonyms: Shatmuli.
Biological source: It consists of dried roots and leaves of the plant known as Asparagus racemosus wild.
Family: Liliaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Shatavarin-I, II, III, IV
Sarsapogenin
Rhamnose moieties.
Uses:
Used as galactogogue, tonic, diuretic
In treatment of rheumatism and nervine disorder
It is used in Ayurveda in threatened abortion and safe delivery.
Shankhpushpi
Synonyms: Shankhvel, Shankhphuli.
Biological source: It consists of the aerial parts of the plant known as Canscora decussata.
Family: Gentianaceae.
Chemical constituents:
It contains oleo-resin
Triterpenes
Alkaloids
Xanthones.
Uses:
It is used as bitter, nervine tonic
In treatment of epilepsy, nervous disability.
Garlic
Synonyms: Allium, Lasun, Lasan.
Biological source: It consists of bulbs of the plant known as Allium sativum linn.
Family: Liliaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Carbohydrates 29%
Allilin
Allicin
Allyl propyl disulphide
Diallyl disulphide.
Uses:
It is used as carminative, expectorant, aphrodiasic.
Used as anthelmintic, rubefacient, disinfectant.
It is useful in high blood pressure and atherosclerosis.
It is used as condiment.
It has antibacterial.
It possesses cholesterol suppressing property.
Tobacco
Synonyms: Tambaku, Tamak, tumbakhu.
Biological source: It consists of dried leaves of Nicotiana tabacum.
Family: Solanoceae.
Chemical constituents:
Nicotine
Anabasine
Nornicotine.
Uses:
Tobacco and nicotine are used as insecticides.
It is powerful quick-acting poison.
It exerts stimulant effect on heart and nervous system.
Nicotine is used in the manufacture of nicotinic acid and nicotinamide.
Dioscorea
Synonym: Yam, rheumatism root.
Biological source: It consists of dried tubers of the plant Dioscorea deltoidea and other species of dioscorea.
Family: Dioscoreaceae.
Chemical constituents:
Diosgenin
Sapogenin
Glycoside
Phenolic compounds.
Uses:
It is used as for synthesis of several corticosteroids, sex hormones
Used in oral contraceptives
In treatment of rheumatic arthritis.
Pyrethrum
Synonyms: Natural pyrethrum, insect flowers.
Biological source: It consists of dried flower-heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariefolium and other species of chrysanthemum.
Family: Compositeae.
Chemical constituents:
Pyrethrin: I–II
Cinerin: I–II
Jasmolin: I–II
Chrysanthenic acid
Pyrethric acid
Cinerolone
Jasmoline.
Uses:
It is used as contact insecticide
Used in preparation of mosquito coils and insect repellent formulations.
Basic Principles Involved in the Alternative Systems of Medicines
(Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Homeopathy)
INTRODUCTION
‘An alternative system of medicines’ means systems of medicines other than allopathic systems.
The principle and philosophy of these systems differ from each other but these systems have served the humanity for the treatment and management of diseases and also maintaining good health of the person.
About 80% of population rely on traditional systems of medicines.
India has a rich heritage of large number of medicinal plants.
These medicinal plants have been used for various medicinal purposes from many centuries.
The different indigenous systems/traditional Indian systems of medicine/ancient system of medicines existing in India are:
Ayurveda
Siddha
Unani
Naturopathy
Yoga
Homeopathy system of medicine was discovered by a German chemist, physician and pharmacist Dr. Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843).
Q 1. What is Ayurveda? Explain basic principles involved in Ayurvedic system of medicine. Write a note on Ayurveda.
Ayurveda
Ayurveda is one of the oldest systems of medicine originating from India.
Ayurveda is made up of two parts: (Ayu + Veda).
109
Ayu means life and Veda means knowledge or science.
Thus Ayurveda means “science of life”.
Ayurveda is prepared from two basic Vedas, namely ‘Rigveda’ and
‘Atharvaveda’.
Ayurveda deals both physical and mental health and also converts art of living.
Theory and Basic Principles of Ayurveda
Ayurveda is based on three fundamental principles:
Panchamahabhuta, i.e. space, air, energy, liquid and solid.
Tridosha, i.e. Vata, Pitta, Kapha.
Guna, Rasa, Virya, Vipaka, Prabhava
The principle of Ayurveda is based on the concept of five basic
elements and ‘Tridoshas’.
These elements exist in the human body in a combined form like:
Vata (space and air)
Pitta (energy and liquid)
Kapha (liquid and solids)
Vata, Pitta, Kapha are together called ‘Tridosha’ (three pillars of
life).
These three doshas are the regulators of cell function and help in maintaining health.
Tridoshas are the three basic governing factors of pathophysiology of a body. When there is an imbalance in these three factors, a disease develops in the body.
Vata: Vata dosha is constituted from vayu and akash which is characterized by lightness and mobility. Balanced vata brings about respiration and equilibrium of tissues and the coordination of senses. Vata is located in the colon, thighs, hips, ears, etc.
Pitta: Pitta dosha originates from Agni and has a hot bright and acidic character. Balanced pitta condition helps in digestion, metabolism and energy production. Imbalance in this dosha is brought about by hot weather, hot and spicy food, etc. Pitta in excess causes yellow colour of stools, urine, eyes and skin, hunger, thirst, burning sensations and difficulty in sleeping. Pitta is located in stomach, small intestine, sebaceous glands, blood and lymph.
Kapha: Kapha is a watery and heavy in character. Increased Kapha affects lubrication of joints and stability of the body. Kapha is caused by cold weather, spring, and heavy meal and by taking too much
rest. Excessive Kapha causes depression of the digestive function, nausea, lethargy, heaviness, white colour, chills, looseness of limbs, cough, difficulty in breathing and excessive sleeping.
There are eight branches of Ayurveda:
Kayachikitsa: Internal medicine
Tarkchikitsa: Psychological medicine
Kumarbhritya: Pediatric medicine
Shalya Tantra: Surgery
Shalakya Tantra: Old age patients (Geriatrics)
Rasayana Tantra: ENT/Eye.
Agadha Tantra: Toxicology (study of poisons)
Vajikaran Tantra: Aphrodisiac
Ayurvedic dosage forms are available in the forms like churna, avleha, arista, asava ghrita swarasa, kalka, kwath, etc.
Q 2. Write a note on Siddha system of medicine. Give the basic principles of Siddha system of medicine.
Siddha System of Medicine
Siddha means achievements and practitioners of the method are
known as ‘Siddhars’.
Siddha system is originated in South India.
The material of Siddha is mostly in Tamil language.
‘Siddhars’ are saintly personalities who have studied medicines
through a practice of Bhakti and Yoga.
Siddha is the system of pre-Vedic period identified with Dravidian
culture and it is largely therapeutic in nature.
Siddha is one of the most ancient recorded herbal systems of medicine.
Siddha system uses minerals and metals mainly but some products of vegetable and animal origin are also used.
Thousands of herbs and minerals were included in Siddha system which are effective in managing chronic, degenerative diseases, viral diseases, etc.
The basic principles involved in Siddha system of medicine:
Siddha system is essentially a psychosomatic system of medicine.
Siddhars adopted principle of Shiva Siddhantham.
Like Ayurveda this system believes that all objects of universe are made up of five basic elements, namely earth, water, sky, fire and air.
Siddha system of medicine is based on three principles of body, i.e.
vata, pitta, kapha collectively called TRIGUNA.
Vata: Increase in vata develops flatulence, acidity, dysentery, obesity, etc. Individual with increased vata shows arrogant behavior, partial paralysis, heart attacks, and neck and chest pains, body smells.
Pitta: Increase in pitta shows graying of hairs, reddish eyes, burning in chest, anemia, etc.
Kapha: Increased kapha causes jaundice, heart attacks, high fever,
anemia, etc.
In Siddha system of medicine the identification of diseases is done through:
Pulse reading
Colour of the body
Study of voice
Urine examination
Status of digestive system
Examination of tongue
Colour changes in eye
Treatment of Siddha system of medicines:
It includes the drugs of vegetables, animals and minerals.
It includes drugs from metal and non-metal. Gold, silver, zinc
borax, asbestos, arsenic, etc.
Drugs from animal secretions, shells and bones of aquatic animals.
Drugs used in Siddha system of medicine:
Abini (Papaver somniferum)
Alari (Nerium indicum)
Ethi (Strychonus Nux-vomica)
Gomathai (Datura stramonium)
Ratha polam (Aloe-barbedensis)
Q 3. What is the Unani system of medicine? Explain the theory and principle of Unani system of medicines.
Unani System of Medicine (Greek)
The Unani system of medicine was introduced in India in 10th century AD.
It aims at treating the cause of disease and not its treatment.
In Unani system history of the patient is recorded in addition to his
pulse, urine and stool examination.
The drugs used in Unani system are polyherbal formulations and
their collective effect is considered.
The Unani system is called by various names in different parts of world such as Arab medicine, Greco-Arab medicine, Islamic medicine and also Oriental medicine.
The Unani systems of medicines are: Madar, fulfal, Glio, Kabab, Chini, Karanj, Kulthi, Lodh, Zeera.
A large number of Indian drugs from indigenous Ayurvedic system
of medicine were taken by the Unani system.
Theory and basic principles of Unani system:
The Unani system of medicine is based on the Hippocratic theory of
four humours and Pythagorean theory of four approximate qualities.
The Hippocrates theory of four humours include blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile which are the first products of the digestion.
According to the Unani system these four qualities are inherent in elements and their interaction with each other gives rise to the quality of the person known as temperament.
The Hakeem’s and physicians, who follow the Unani system of medicine, diagnose their patients by reading pulse and by examination of sputum, urine and stools. Some other aspects such as the patient’s psychology, age, general habits, family history, hobbies, occupation, working conditions are also taken into account while diagnosing a disease.
The material medica of the Unani system consists of drugs of vegetable, animal and mineral origin.
The Unani system of medicine is supposed to be a holistic system of medicine.
According to principles of Unani, body is made up of the following
proximal qualities:
Four basic elements of human body
Qualities or states of human body
Four humours of human body
Principles and concepts of Unani medicines are:
Arkan (Elements) ii. Mizas (Temperament)
iii. Akhlat (Humours) iv. Aaza (Organs)
v. Arwah (Spirit) vi. Quwa (Faculties)
Treatment of Unani system of medicine includes:
Treatment of root causes of the ailment, not the symptoms.
It is considered that disease is due to imbalance of humours and is the products of digestion. Hence the aim of treatment is to regulate diet to get rid of accumulated toxins and restore equilibrium of humours.
Physical, mental and emotional exercises and proper massage
should be given.
Improving natural defense power of the body.
Q 4. Give the theory and basic principles of Homeopathy system of medicine.
Homeopathy System of Medicine
Homeopathy system was discovered by physician and chemist of Germany, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann.
The term homeopathy is made up of two words:
Homeo: Means similar, Pathos: Means sufferings
Thus homeopathy can be considered as the system of ‘similar
sufferings’.
He found that there is a law in medicine which is called “Law of Similars” indicating the similarity between the drugs and diseases.
Theory and Basic Principles of Homeopathy System of Medicine
Dr Hahnemaan introduced his new principle that like diseases are cured by like medicines (Like cures Like). With this principle he proved that Cinchona can produce the symptoms of malaria.
The doctrine of “Similia Similibus Curantur” (like cures like) is
the basic foundation of homeopathic medicine.
The unique features of homeopathic medicines are its small dose and methodology of serial dilution by which all the energy of the drug is liberated and transferred to the medium used as base sugar or alcohol.
During the treatment the drug extracts are extremely diluted which is believed to cause potentiation and enhancement of curative effect.
The drugs are extracted in the form of mother tincture, which is
further diluted in terms of decimal or centesimal potencies.
Homeopathy is based on seven principles:
Individualization ii. Principle of similia
iii. Principle of simplex iv. Principle of minimum dose
Law of proving vi. Law of dynamisation
vii. Law of vital force
Diagnosis of diseases in homeopathic system:
Detail patient history, current symptoms, patient’s mood, behavior, likes and dislikes, responses to stress conditions, food reactions and personality, etc. was considered during diagnosis of diseases. From the history symptoms, a picture is created which is matched with drug picture in Materia Medica and treatment is started.
Treatments in homeopathic system:
Practitioners identify single medicine as per the symptoms.
Treatment contains one or more doses or daily dose of
2–6 weeks.
Progress of the patient is checked from time to time and
alterations in therapy are made.
In case of recurrence, treatment is repeated with same or higher potency.
Q 5. Write in brief about ‘Naturopathy as a system of Medicine”.
Naturopathy
The term naturopathy was coined by Dr. John Scheel in 1895.
Naturopathy means use of components of nature in the treatment of diseases.
Naturopathy is a system of healthcare which promotes the body’s own self-healing mechanism.
Naturopathy is based on laws of nature.
Naturopathy gives importance to cleaning of physiological systems.
It states that the disease can be completely treated by removing the
imbalance in internal and external atmosphere.
In naturopathy the attention is given particularly to eating and living habits, purification measures, mud packs, baths, massages, etc. and maximum importance is given to digestive system.
Naturopathy medicine is dedicated to the study and celebration of natures healing powers.
Naturopathy uses natural therapies such as nutrition, herbal medicines, acupuncture, homeopathy, fasting, exercise and such other ways, in accordance with naturopathic principles.
Six basic principles of naturopathic medicines are:
First do no harm.
The healing power of nature (the body heals itself)
Identify and treat the causes.
Naturopathic doctor as a teacher.
Treat the whole person.
Prevention.
Q 6. Write a note on ‘Yoga as a traditional Indian system of medicine’.
Yoga
Yoga system was practicised in routine in the history of India.
Yoga is based on positive thinking and meditation.
Yoga system gives importance to calmness to the brain and body.
Yoga gives physical and mental strength.
Yoga saves physical energy.
Yoga focuses on internal environment than external environment.
Yoga system gives importance to cardiovascular system and central nervous system.
The main objectives of yoga are:
Blood purification
Blood circulation
Tranquility.
Eight components of yoga are: Restraint, observance of austerity (discipline), physical posture, restraining of sense organs, breathing exercises, contemplation (thoughtful observation), meditation and Samadhi.
Ten principles of yoga are:
Non-violence (No killing of other beings. Be peaceful).
Truthfulness (Satya): Live in truth.
Righteousness (asatya): No cheating
Wisdom: Live in spiritual focus
Simplicity
Worship of the spiritual goal
Sacrifice the ego
Self-discipline
Reading
Contentment (Santosha).
Methods of Preparations of Ayurvedic Formulations
(Arista, Asava, Gutika, Taila, Churna,
Q 1. Define Ayurvedic dosage forms. Classify Ayurvedic dosage forms with examples.
Ayurvedic Dosage Forms
It means all medicines intended for internal or external use or, in the diagnosis, treatment, mitigation or prevention of disease or disorder in human being or animals and are manufactured in accordance with the formulae described in authoritative books of Ayurveda specified in the First Schedule of the D and C Act, 1940.
Classification of Ayurvedic Dosage Forms
Solid dosage forms: For example, pills, gutika, vatika,
Semisolid doasage forms: For example, Avaleha, paka, Lepa, Ghrita, malamas, kalkas,
Liquid dosage forms: For example, Aristas, Asavas, Arkas, Tailas, Dravakas, Netrabindu, kwaths, swarasas
Powder dosage forms: For example, Bhasma, Churna, anjan, Satva, Lavana, Kshara, pisti, parpati.
Q 2. Explain methods of preparations of following Ayurvedic Formulations: a. Aristas, b. Asavas, c. Gutika, d. Tailas, e.
Churnas, f. Lehya, g. Bhasmas
Aristas
These are weak alcoholic preparations prepared by making a decoction of the drug and then allowing them to undergo fermentation by the help of raw sugar or honey.
e.g. Dashmularista, Ashokarista.
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Method of Preparation of Arista
The drug mentioned in the formula is coarsely powdered and decoction (kasaya) is prepared, filtered and transferred to wooden vats.
Sugar, honey or jaggery is added to it, dissolved and boiled.
Other finely powdered ingredients and Dhataki pushpa (Woodfordia
fruticosa) are added to it.
The vessel is closed with lid and edges are sealed with clay smeared cloth wrapped in seven consecutive layers.
The vessels are kept in basement for a specific period in order to
facilitate fermentation (Sadhana)
The contents are examined for completion of fermentation and
arista is filtered and bottled.
Asavas
These are medicated alcoholic liquors prepared by the fermentation of raw vegetables juices with honey or jaggery.
e.g. Kumariasava, Chandanasava, Madhukasava
The various parts of the plant such as roots, leaves and barks, etc. are cut into pieces and infusion is prepared in water in airtight earthen jars.
Honey is mixed in it and fermentation is done for at least six months.
Asavas are used as stomachics, stimulants, tonics and astringents.
Method of Preparation of Asavas
Required quantity of water and jaggery or sugar is taken, boiled, cooled and transferred to fermentation vessel or barrels.
Finely powdered crude drug and other ingredients as mentioned in the formula are then added to it.
The container is covered with the lid and edges are sealed with clay smeared cloth wrapped in seven consecutive layers.
The vessels are kept in basement for a specific period of at least
six months to facilitate fermentation.
The contents are examined for the completion of fermentation and
the asavas are filled and bottled.
Gutika
Gutikas are large tablets or pills prepared by converting the decoction of vegetable substances into thick consistency and then mixed with powdered medicine, raw sugar and honey.
e.g. Bilavdi Gutika, Lasunadi Gutika, Marma Gutika
Method of Preparation of Gutika
The drugs from plant origin are dried and finely powdered separately.
The minerals are made into bhasmas or sinduras.
Kajjali is made first the other drugs are added one by one according
to the formula.
It is then put into khalva (mortar) and ground to soft paste with the
prescribed fluids.
When the mass is properly ground, sugandhi dravyas are added
and ground again.
The final pill mass should not stick to the fingers when rolled.
Pills are prepared and may be dried in shade or in sun.
Tailas (Medicated oils)
Tailas are medicated oils which are prepared by boiling drugs in water, milk or other liquid substances mixed with oil until water content is evaporated.
The oils thus prepared are generally meant for local application.
e.g. Bhringraja tailas, Mahanarayan tailas, Dhanvantra tailas, Anu tailas, Jyotismati tailas.
Method of Preparation of Tailas
These are prepared by cooking oils with the juice or the decoction and paste of drugs.
The fine paste of drug, liquid and oil together are cooked, stirred constantly to the paste at the bottom and prevented it from getting charred.
When medicated tailas gets properly cooked, large amount of foam appears at the surface of the oil. Therefore, formulation should be strained prior to packing.
Tailas can be used internally or topically. They retain potency of about sixteen months.
Tailas are taken internally with warm water or milk.
Churna
These are powdered mixtures prepared by mixing dry, mineral, animal or vegetable substances in pastle mortar.
The fine powder of drug or drugs is also known as Churna.
Churnas are taken with milk, hot water and cows urine
e.g. Triphala churna, Sudarshan churna, Ashwgandhadi churna, Drakshadi churna
Method of Preparation of Churna
The drugs mentioned in formula are cleaned properly, dried thoroughly, pulverized and then sieved.
All the ingredients are weighed and mixed together.
The churna is free flowing and retains potency for one year, if
preserved in airtight containers.
Lehya/Avleha/Leha
These are thick extracts of drugs in which decoction of drug is prepared, strained and then boiled with sugar or honey to soft consistency.
For example, kutajavaleha, drkasavaleha, vasavaleha.
Avlehas are used for digestive troubles, respiratory problems and as a general tonic.
Method of Preparation of Lehya/Avleha
Jaggery or sugar candy is dissolved in liquid, boiled and strained.
Solution is boiled over moderate fire till paka becomes thread.
The fine powered drug in small quantities are added and stirred
continuously to form the homogenous mass.
Ghee or oil is added while preparation is hot.
Honey is added after cooling and mixed well.
Bhasma
These are ashes prepared from vegetable, mineral substances and also from animal products.
Bhasma are powdered form of substances obtained by calcinations of metals, minerals or animal products by special process in closed crucibles or in pit covered with cow dung cake (puta).
For example, Tamra bhaasma, Godanti Bhasma, Pravala Bhasma, Shankha Bhasma, Suvarna Bhasma.
Method of Preparation of Bhasma
The preparation of bhasma consists of two steps:
Sodhana: It means purification.
Marana:
The purified drug is placed in mortar and pastle, ground with
juices or kasaya of drugs.
Small cakes are made. Cakes are dried under sunlight and placed in single layer in shallow earthen plate and closed with another plate.
The edge is sealed with clay smeared cloth in seven consecutive layers and dried.
A pit is dug in open space.
Half pit is filled with cow dung cakes.
The sealed earthen container is placed in it and the remaining
space is filled with more cow dung cakes.
Fire is put in all four sides and middle of pit.
After completion of burning it is allowed to cool.
Earthen container is removed, seal is opened, and contents are taken out.
The material from the container is ground into fine powder in khalva repeatedly till proper fineness and quality is obtained.
Q 3. Define the terms.
Anjan: These are medicated fine powders intended to use in the eyes for their local effects.
Netrabindu: These are liquid preparations made by dissolving the
specified form of drug in water or honey and used as eye drops.
Vati/Vatika: The medicaments in the form of small tablet or pills are known as vati or vatika.
Rasayna/kupipakva: These are preparations of metals containing mercury and are in the form of pills or tablets.
Sattva: A water extractable solid substance obtained from a drug is known as sattva.
Lepa: These are semisolid preparations in the form of paste used for external application on the body.
Dravakas: These are the liquid preparations obtained from lavana and kshara.
Pakas: These are semisolid preparations of drugs prepared by addition of sugar, raw sugar and boiled with prescribed drug juice.
Araks: These are distilled essences or liquors made by soaking drugs in water for 24–48 hours and then distilled the same.
Kanjika: It is sour liquid produced from the fermentation of powdered paddy (Brassica juncea) and other grains.
Murambas: These are preparations of drug or fruits made by soaking them in syrup or honey.
Swarasas: These are fresh expressed juices prepared by crushing green fresh medicinal plants in a mortar and expressed.
Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in National Economy
INTRODUCTION
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) are botanical raw materials, also known as herbal drugs that are primarily used for therapeutic, aromatic and culinary purposes as a component of cosmetics, medicinal products, health foods and other natural health products.
Aromatic plants are the special kinds of plants used for their aroma
and flavor. Many of them are also used for medicinal purposes.
Aromatic compounds are found in the parts of plants like roots,
wood, bark, leaves, fruit, seeds, etc.
Examples of medicinal and aromatic plants: Isapgula, Senna, Opium, Vinca, Cinchona, Sandalwood oil, Jasmine, etc.
Q 1. Explain the role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in National Economy.
Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in National Economy:
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) contribute to the local and national economy and become the source of cash for the rural livelihood.
Aromatic plants are those plants which produce a certain type of aroma (smell/odor).
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) have many parts/ingredients that can be used to treat various types of ailments, infections and other disorders.
Ayurvedic, Naturopathy and aromatherapy systems of medicines heavily depend on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs).
A Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) also serve as raw material
for condiments, soaps, fragrances, hair oils and more.
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Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in National Economy 123
The demand of these MAPs is ever increasing rapidly; they exported abroad to countries like Canada, France, the US, the UK and Turkey. This contributes to major Indian export.
Domestic and foreign markets for medicinal and aromatic plants are growing rapidly.
India possesses all types of climatic conditions and topography has been considered as “Botanical Garden of the world”. This botanical wealth constitutes more than 2200 species of medicinal and essential oil containing plants.
The rapid growth of phytopharmaceuticals, perfumery and allied industries in India showing a great role in improving national economy.
Q 2. Give the scope and importance of medicinal and aromatic plants.
Scope and Importance of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
India is one of the few countries where almost all the known
medicinal plants can be cultivated in some parts of the country.
The plants of great demand in the country as well as abroad are opium poppy, Senna, cinchona and ipecac has more scope for cultivation and earning profits.
The Indian system of medicine (ISM) is a plant-based material
medica making the use of most of our native plants.
India has about 2000 species of medicinal plants and a vast geographical area with high production potential in various agricultural climatic conditions.
India is a major exporter of raw material and drugs from medicinal and aromatic plants.
There are more than 1500 known aromatic plant species act as a source of raw material for the perfumery and cosmetic industries in India.
Many numbers of aromatic plants have found commercial source
of essential oils and aroma chemicals.
Aromatic plants are used in the formulations of cosmetics, pharmaceutical preparations, perfumery, confectionery ice-cream, aerated waters, disinfectants, Agarbatti, etc.
Q 3. Write in brief about ‘export potential of medicinal and aromatic plants’.
Export Potential of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
India has been the major supplier of medicinal plants in the world market till 1976. Later on with increasing demand in abroad major drugs are exported from India.
The plants of export value from India were opium, psyllium husk and seeds, Vinca rosea, Senna leaves and pods, etc.
The export of these drugs is permitted by firms obtaining certificates from the chief conservator of the forest or officer authorized by him that the material is of plantation or nursery origin.
Huge amount of foreign exchange can be earned by exporting medicinal plants to other countries.
Examples of medicinal and aromatic plants and their photochemicals exported from India:
Opium alkaloids (Papaver somniferum)
Seed husk and seeds of Isabgol (Plantago ovate)
Root and root alkaloids of Vinca (Catharanthus roeus)
Leaves, pods and total sennoside concentrate of senna (Cassia angustifolia)
Quinine and quinidine alkaloids (Cinchona officinalis)
The essential oils are also exported regularly such as sandalwood oil (Santalum album), Jasmine otto and absolute (Jasminum grandi floure).
Herb is a plant that has leaves and stems that die down at the end of the growing season to the soil level. Herb plants may be annuals, binneals or perennials. Herbs have variety of uses including culinary, medicinal and in some cases spiritual usage.
Examples of herbs: Garlic, alfalfa, ginkgo, ginseng, onion, etc.
Q 1. What is Nutraceutical? Classify Nutraceuticals with suitable examples.
Nutraceutical
Nutraceutical is a substance which can be considered as a food or its part which provides medicinal or health benefits including the prevention and treatment of diseases.
Nutraceuticals are biologically active phytochemicals that possess
health benefits.
Classification of Nutraceuticals
Nutraceuticals are Classified as:
As per natural source:
Plants: Garlic (Allium sativum), Tomato (Solanun lycopersicum)
Animals: Shark liver oil, Cod liver oil
Mineral: Calcium, boron, magnesium, manganese, copper, zinc, phosphorus.
Microorganisms: Bifidobacteria, Lactobacilli.
As per pharmacological basis:
Allergic relief: Ginkgo biloba
Cardiac disease: Garlic
Cancer prevention: Flex seeds, green tea
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Cholesterol lowering: Garlic
Digestive support: Digestive enzymes
As per chemical constitution
Inorganic supplements: Minerals
Vitamin supplements: Vitamins
Digestive enzymes: Enzymes
Probiotics: Helpful bacteria
Prebiotics: Digestive enzymes
Dietary fibres: Fibres (oats and dried beans)
Antioxidants: Natural antioxidants
Phytochemicals: Omega 3-fatty acids, carotenoids, vitamins.
Q 2. Give the importance/therapeutic applications of nutraceuticals.
Nutraceuticals may increase the health value of our diet and help us live longer.
Nutraceuticals playing significant role in modifying and maintaining
healthy human being.
Nutraceuticals help to prevent some of the health problems like obesity, sleeping disorders, digestive problems, CVS disorders, cancer, arthritis, blood pressure, osteoporosis, etc.
Nutraceuticals may have some psychological benefits from doing
something for oneself.
The food products used as nutraceuticals can be categorized as dietary fibres, prebiotics, probiotics and other types of herbal or natural foods.
Due to nutraceuticals, food industry has becoming progressive sector.
Q 3. Write a note on the following nutraceuticals: a. Antioxidants,
b. Prebiotics, c. Probiotics, d. Dietary fibres, e. Omega-3-fatty acids, f. Spirulina, g. Carotenoids, h. Soya, i. Garlic
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are the compounds which retard or prevent the oxidation and prolong the life of the oxidizable matter.
Antioxidant nutraceuticals are those which contain vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A and beta-carotene.
Antioxidants are also present in some fixed oils, fruits, vegetables and fishes.
These antioxidants either prevent the formation of oxygen-free
radical or trap them (Scavenging effect).
Antioxidants play a vital role in the life of a living being.
S-allyl cysteines sulphoxide from garlic may act by scavenging
effect and also shown hypolipidaemic action.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) is a major radical trapper in lipid membrane is clinically useful in cardiac damage and carcinogenicity.
Selenium is an important dietary anticarcinogen.
Various plant materials like amla, myrobalan, and lemon contain ascorbic acid (vitamin C) which prevents both the formation and scavenging of oxygen free radical.
Beta-carotene and vitamin A have shown to cause antioxidant effect
and immune enhancement.
Deficiency of antioxidants causes diseases like cancer, rheumatoid
arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease, cardiovascular disorders.
Antioxidants are of three categories:
True antioxidants
Reducing agents
Antioxidant synergists
Prebiotics
Prebiotics are food substances which reach to colon in intact form, without getting depleted by gastric pH and digestive acids.
Prebiotics also selectively promote the growth of colonic bacteria.
Prebiotics are non-digestible substances that provide a beneficial physiological effect for the host by selectively stimulating the favorable growth of a limited number of indigenous bacteria.
Commonly known prebiotics are:
Inulin
Oligo fructose
Galacto-oligosaccharides
Lactulose
At present the best known prebiotics is inulin.
Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria digest inulin and feed themselves
on it. Hence, prebiotics acts as fertilizers for these bacteria.
Inulin also serves as the role of dietary fibre.
Probiotics
Probiotics are living micro-organisms which when taken with or without food, may improve the intestinal microbial balance and functioning of the large intestine.
These micro-organisms show their effect by producing substances and conditions which inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria in the large intestine.
Probiotics includes:
Bifidobacterium
Lactobacilli species (e.g. Lactobacillius acidophilus)
Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Some E. coli and Bacillus species.
Dairy products like sour milk.
Benefits of probiotics:
To treat diarrhea
To improve symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome
Shortens the duration of intestinal infections
Manages lactose intolerance
Reduces bladder and urinary tract infections
Dietary Fibres
Dietary fibres are the parts of plant such as stem, leaves and seeds
which human body cannot digest and absorb.
Dietary fibres are generally categorised into two groups:
Water soluble fibres: These are present in oats, dried beans, legumes, chicory, etc.
Water insoluble fibres: These are present in brown rice, bananas, vegetables and whole grain cereals like wheat, barley, etc.
Insoluble fibres mainly help in bulking of stool and their quick
passage through digestive canal.
Soluble fibres dissolve in water and form a gel that binds the stools.
Uses of dietary fibres:
Soluble fibre lowers serum cholesterol level and also regulates
blood sugar level.
Insoluble fibres promote regular elimination, increase stool
weight and speed up digestion and elimination time.
Increased dietary fibre intake may reduce the risk of gastrointestinal diseases, hypertension, diabetes, heart diseases, colon cancers, etc.
Omega-3-Fatty Acids
Omega-3-fatty acids are polyunsaturated essential fatty acids mainly of marine origin.
They are called omega-3 fatty acids because the first double bond counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid which is located at third carbon atom.
Omega-3-fatty acids are Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and Dpcosahexanoic acid (DHA).
Omega-3-fatty acids are found in cold water fishes like cod, salmon, tuna, sardines, blue fish, etc.
Fish oil is the reliable source of omega-3-fatty acids.
Walnut, soyabean, freshly ground wheat germ, flax seed, canola
are valuable sources of omega-3-fatty acids.
Omega-3-fatty acids are important components of cell membrane. Their presence in the cell membrane increases the physicochemical stability and functional integrity of cell.
Omega-3-fatty acids are essential for normal growth and development at all stages of life.
Omega-3-fatty acids make the cells less susceptible to oxidative damages as well as they decrease the formation of lipid peroxides.
Significance/Importance/Uses of Omega-3-Fatty Acids:
They have significant role in Arteriosclerosis.
They reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
They can fight against depression and anxiety.
They are used to treat mental disorders.
They help to prevent cancer.
They can reduce asthma in children.
They are used in arthritis.
Spirulina
Biological source: It is blue green algae Spirulina plantensis or
Spirulina maxima.
Family: Oscillatoriaceae
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Gamma linoleic acid
Oleic acid
Glycolipids and sulpholipids
Rich in vitamin B
Beta carotenes
Phycocyanin
Phycobiliprotein
Phycocyanobilin
Uses:
It has immunostimulant activity.
It is helpful in management of HIV and other viral infections
such as herpes, influenza, mumps.
It is also used to treat arthritis, arteriosclerosis, diabetes, and aging process.
Spirulina is a concentrated source of food containing nutraceuticals and contains antioxidants, probiotics and phytonutrients.
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are group of natural occurring matters producing purple, red, yellow or orange colours.
Carotenoids are present both in plants and animals.
Carotenoids act as photosynthetic access pigments in plants and in animals as a source of vitamin A and also as antioxidants.
Examples of carotenoids: Annatto, crocus, beta-carotene, lutein, lycopene, zeaxanthin.
Annatto
Synonyms: Arnotta, Annotta
Biological source: It consists of dried seeds of the plant Bixa orellana Linn.
Family: Bixaceae
Chemical constituents: It contains:
12% of annatto oleoresin
Bixin
Uses: Annatto is used as colouring agent for foods, cosmetics, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, dairy desserts, fats and oils and in margarines.
Crocus (Saffron)
Synonyms: Saffron, Hay Saffron, Kesar
Biological source: Crocus consists of dried stigmas and upper parts of styles of plant known as Crocus sativus Linn.
Family: Iridaceae
Chemical constituents: It contains red colouring matters.
Crocin
Crocetin
Picrocrocin (bitter principle)
Protocrocin
Uses:
Crocus (Saffron) is used as a colouring (food dye) and
flavouring agent.
It is also used as antispasmodic, emmenagogue and a stimulant.
Soya (Soya bean)
Synonyms: Soy, soya bean, soja, soja bean, glycine-max.
Biological source: It consists of dried seeds of the plant Glycine max.
Family: Leguminaceae
Chemical constituents:
It consists of high content of high quality of proteins.
It is rich source of carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals.
It also contains calcium, iron, magnesium and potassium.
It also contains isoflavones like genistein and daidzein.
Uses:
It has major role in reducing risk of coronary heart disease.
It also helps to reduce blood cholesterol level.
It helps to prevent estrogen-dependent cancer.
It also helps to prevent osteoporosis.
It is healthier cooking oil.
It is a rich source of omega-3-fatty acids.
Garlic
Synonym: Allium, Lasun, Lasan
Biological source: It consists of bulbs of the plant known as Allium sativum Linn.
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical constituents:
Carbohydrates 29%
Allilin
Allicin
Allyl propyl disulphide
Diallyl disulphide
Uses:
Garlic is used to reduce serum cholesterol and also in treatment of atherosclerosis.
Garlic has also been found to reduce platelet aggregation.
Garlic has antibacterial activity.
Garlic is useful in amoebic dysentery.
It is used as carminative, expectorant aphrodisiac.
It is also used as anthelmintic.
It is used as condiment.
Q 4. Write in brief about following drugs: a. Ginseng, b. Flax seed,
Gingko (Gingko biloba)
Ginseng
Synonyms: Ninjin, Pannag, Panax.
Biological source: It is dried root of various species of Panax ginseng.
Family: Araliaceae
Chemical constituents:
Ginsenosides
Panaxosides
Chikusetsusaponin
Panaxatriol
It also contains choline, vitamins B1, B2, B12, pantothenic acid, biotin.
Uses:
It helps to reduce stress and fatigue.
It is used in the treatment of hypertension and hypoglycemia.
It is an important immunomodulator.
It is used as aphrodisiac.
Ginseng extracts are also used externally in cosmetics.
Flax seed (Linseed)
Synonyms: Flax seed, Linum.
Biological source: It consists of dried ripe seeds of the plant known as Linum usitatissium Linn.
Family: Linaceae.
Chemical constituents:
It contains about 20 to 40% of fixed oil and 20% of protein.
Mucilage 2 to 7%.
Cyanogenetic glycoside: Linamarin
Enzyme: Linase
Uses:
It is used as a source of fixed oil.
It is also used as a demulcent.
Linseed meal is used as poultice.
Linseed oil is a drying oil.
It prevents mammary, colon and rectal cancers.
It reduces blood pressure in hypertensive patients.
It reduces diabetes and coronary heart diseases.
Gingko (Gingko biloba)
Synonyms: Maiden hair tree, Kew tree.
Biological source: It consists of dried leaves of Gingko biloba Linn.
Family: Gingkoaceae
History: Gingko occurs as a street and park tree. The leaves of gingko have an appearance of maiden hair fern, hence called maiden hair tree. Gingko is known to be resistant to insects, bacteria and pollution.
Chemical constituents: It mainly contains flavonol glycosides.
Bilobelin
Ginkgetin
Isoginkgetin
Gingkolic acid
Bilobetin
Gingkolides—A, B, C
Schikimic acid.
Uses:
Gingko is traditionally used in the treatment of asthma.
Gingkoside B is used in the treatment of severe sepsis.
Gingko is used in the impairment of memory.
(Aloe Vera Gel, Almond Oil, Lavender Oil, Olive Oil, Rosemary Oil, Sandalwood Oil)
Q 1. Give the sources, chemical constituents, commercial preparations, therapeutic uses and cosmetic uses of the following: 1. Aloe vera gel, 2. Almond oil, 3. Lavender oil,
4. Olive oil, 5. Rosemary oil, 6. Sandalwood oil.
Aloe Vera Gel
Aloe Vera Gel is prepared from the plant Aloe, i.e. Korphad.
Aloe
Synonyms: Korphad, Mussabar, Burn plant, First aid plant.
Biological source: It is obtained from the dried juice of the leaves of Aloe barbedensis miller.
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical constituents: It contains chemical constituents such as amino acids, anthraquinone, sugars, enzymes, vitamins, hormones, saponins and steroids.
Aloin, barbaloin, isobarbaloin, aloe-emodin, beta-barbaloin are the main chemical constituents.
Commercial Preparations
Aloe vera gel g. Aloertin A
Aloe vera juice h. Regene care HA
Aloe vera paste i. Aloe vera hair oil
Kumariasava j. Aloe vera face wash
Rajparvanti vati k. Aloe vera tea
Regene care
Therapeutic Uses of Aloe Vera Gel
It is useful in treatment of indigestion and constipation.
It helps to reduce burns, psoriasis, warts, and eczema and reduce ageing.
134
It improves joint flexibility and helps in regeneration of the body cells, reducing inflammation.
It also helps in the treatment of rashes, sores, herpes, urticaria, fungal infections, vaginal infections, conjunctivitis.
It is useful as a purgative and laxative and also relieves anal fissure.
Cosmetic Uses of Aloe Vera Gel
In cosmetics it is used as protective
It stimulates the growth of hairs
It is used as a skin moisturizer
It helps to sooth sunburn
It has cooling properties
It fights against skin ageing
It reduces infection and acne
It helps to lighten blemishes on the face
It can help to remove dandruff
It acts as a conditioner to hair and scalp.
Almond Oil
Synonyms: Almond milk, amygdale, amara, king of nuts, amygdalin, bitter almond.
Biological source: Almond oil is fixed obtained by expression from
the seeds of Prunus amygdalus Var.
Chemical constituents: It contains:
Amygdalin, oleic acid (77%), linoleic acid (17%), palmitic acid (5%), myrsitic acid (1%).
It is rich in vitamins A and E.
Commercial Preparations of Almond Oil
Almond oil
Almond hair oil
Almond skin cream
Therapeutic Uses of Almond Oil
It is used as an anti-inflammatory and boosts immunity
It may lower the risk of cancer and heart
It is a good source of antioxidants
It has mild laxative action
It is used as a vehicle for oily injections.
Cosmetic Uses of Almond Oil
It improves complexion and skin tone
It is used to treat dry skin
It is used as an emollient
It is used as a makeup remover
It is used to prevent stretch mark
It is used as moisturizer and massage oil
It is used in many toilet articles
It can help to restore natural complexion and remove all signs of
skin darkening.
Lavender Oil
Synonym: Lavender, lavendula, French lavender, English lavender, Spike lavender.
Family: Laminaceae (Mint.)
Biological source: Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the spikes of Lavendula angustifolia and other species of lavender.
Chemical constituents: Lavender oil is one of the most well-known essential oils used in aromatherapy.
It contains:
Lavendulyl acetate, linalyl acetate, terpene alcohol, linalool, terpin-4-ol, camphor, cis-ocimene, 8-cineole, limonene and geraniol.
Commercial Preparations of Lavender Oil
Commercial preparations of lavender oil are made from dried flowers,
dried herb and essential oil.
Lavender is available in the following forms:
Lavender oil
Bath gels
Tea
Tinctures
Extracts
Lotions
Soaps
Therapeutic Uses of Lavender Oil
It is used in indigestion
It is used to treat anxiety, tension, and headache.
It is used as local pain killer
It is used as an antiseptic
It increases urine flow
It is used in the treatment of migraine, stress, depression, reduce pain of tense muscle.
It is used in aromatherapy.
Cosmetic Uses of Lavender Oil
It has antidandruff action
It is useful in sunburn
It is used to prevent hair fall
It is helpful to build immune system of the body
Olive Oil
Synonym: Vegetable oil, olive, oleic acid
Family: Oleaceae
Biological source: It is a fixed oil obtained from expression of
the ripe fruits of Olea europea Linn. Or Indian olive (O. ferrugia)
Chemical constituents: It contains oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid and other fatty acids, beta-sitosterols.
Commercial Preparations of Olive Oil
Oleev Health olive oil
Disano olive oil
Del Monte olive pomace oil
Olive oil
Used as an ingredient in soaps, creams, lotions shampoos, etc.
Therapeutic Uses of Olive Oil
It is used to treat constipation
It is used to treat pains associated with ear infections, arthritis, gall bladder diseases
It is used to treat jaundice and swelling of abdomen due to gases
It is home consuming oil.
Cosmetic Uses of Olive Oil
It is used as moisturizer and fights against bacteria
It helps to prevent skin ageing
It is useful for makeup removal
It is useful to remove stretch marks
It is used in dry skin and chapped lips, beautify hairs.
Due to its antioxidant properties it helps to prevent or reverse
damage from cancer causing ultraviolet radiation.
Rosemary Oil
Synonym: Rosemary coronarium
Family: Lamiacece (Mint.)
Biological source: Oil of rosemary is an essential oil distilled from
the flowering tops of leafy twigs of Rosmarinus officinalis.
Chemical Constituents
It contains volatile and aromatic components.
It contains 0.5 to 45% of volatile oil
Alpha and beta pinene, camphene, limonene, camphor, borneole, cineole, linalool, verbinol.
It also contains flavonids like diosmetin, diosmin, genkwanin,
luteolin, hispidulin, apigenin.
It contains rosmarinic acid and carnosic acid.
Commercial Preparations of Rosemary Oil
Patanjali Rosemary oil
Anti-hair fall oil
Mama Earth Root Restore Hair Oil
Rosemary essential oil
Aromatique Rosemary essential oil for hair
Rosemary tea (for its flavor, aroma and health benefits)
Therapeutic Uses of Rosemary Oil
It is used as anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic
It has antifungal and antibacterial properties
It is used to reduce joint inflammation
It helps to improve brain function (memory)
It is useful in indigestion (dysphagia)
It has antibacterial properties due to which it helps to treat respiratory problems such as bronchial asthma, bronchitis, sinusitis, nasal congestion, cold and flu, etc.
Cosmetic Uses of Rosemary Oil
It is used to treat acne
It is used to lighten stretch marks
It gives glowing of skins
It soothes irritation caused by dermatitis and eczema
It helps to stimulate growth of hairs
It is used as moisturizer and helps to reduce ageing of skin
Sandalwood Oil
Synonym: Chandan oil, sandal oil, yellow sandalwood oil, liginum
Biological source: Sandalwood oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation of dried heart wood of the plant Santalum album Linn.
Family: Santalaceae
Chemical constituents: It contains alpha-santalol, beta-santalol, santene, santenone, tersantol, santalone, santalene.
Commercial Preparation of Sandalwood Oil
Sandalwood essential oil microcapsules
Sandalwood oil
Indian sandalwood oil
Sandalwood powder
Therapeutic Uses of Sandalwood Oil
It is used in the treatment of dysuria
It is used in common cold
It is used to treat urinary tract infections
It helps to treat various digestive problems
It is used to treat liver and gall bladder problems
It is used as relaxant and sedative, antiseptic.
It is used to treat mental disorders, scabies and hemorrhoids.
Cosmetic Uses of Sandalwood Oil
It is used as perfume in cosmetics and incense sticks
It has anti-acne, anti-ageing, anti-tanning and antidandruff properties
It is used as a cleanser for all types of skin
It is used to treat dry skin, crackling, wrinkles, massage oil, perfume.
It is useful for healing of wounds, sores, scars, pimples, removal of black heads, burns.
Phytochemical Investigation of Drugs
Q 1. Define the terms.
Phytochemicals
Phytochemicals are the chemicals produced by plants through primary metabolism and secondary metabolism.
Examples: Carotenoids, polyphenols, flavonoids, isothiocyanates,
phenolic acids, tannins, antioxidants.
Phytochemistry
Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals which are derived
from plants.
Phytochemical Investigation
It refers to the extraction, screening and identification of the medi-cinally active substances found in the plants.
Q 2. Give the importance/significance of phytochemical investigation (Phytochemical Screening).
Importance of phytochemical investigation
It is carried out for establishing chemical profile of crude drug.
To identify new sources of therapeutically and industrially important compounds like flavonoids, phenolic compounds, saponins, steroids, tannins, terpenoids, etc.
It is helpful for the manufacture of new drugs.
It helps to determine the identity of two substances.
It is helpful to monitor the progress of a reaction.
It is helpful to determine the effectiveness of purification.
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Q 3. Enlist/state/give/mention various stages involved in phytochemical investigation.
Different stages involved in phytochemical investigation
The procurement of raw material and quality control.
Extraction, purification and characterization of the constituents of pharmaceutical interest and in-process quality control.
Investigations of biosynthetic pathways of particular compounds.
Quantitative evaluation.
Q 4. What is Extraction? Name the solvent used in extraction of crude drugs. Explain the role of solvents in extraction of crude drugs.
Extraction
The technique used for separation of active principles from the crude
drug is called extraction.
Solvents Used in Extraction of Crude Drugs
Water, alcohol, chloroform, ether, light petroleum, ethyl acetate, etc.
Role of Solvent Used in Extraction
The plant material used for extraction should be properly
authenticated or identified.
The choice of plant material for extraction depends on its nature and the components required to be isolated.
The dried powdered material is commonly used for extraction.
When fresh plants are used, they are macerated or homogenized with a solvent such as alcohol.
Water immiscible solvents such as light petrolatum are used for extraction of fixed oil and essential oils, steroids and aglycones.
Chloroform and ether are used for the separation of alkaloids and quinines.
The glycosides are soluble in water and alcohol but are insoluble
in non-polar solvents.
Tannins are phenolic matter soluble in water, alcohol and ethyl acetate.
Extraction itself may be performed by repeated maceration with agitation, percolation or by continuous extraction using soxhlet extractor.
Q 5. Write a note on “Preliminary Phytochemical Screening” of crude drugs.
Preliminary Phytochemical Screening
Preliminary phytochemical screening means detection of bioactive
principles present in the medicinal plants.
Preliminary Phytochemical Screening Involves
Successive Solvent Extraction
The air-dried powdered plant material is extracted in soxhlet extractor successively with petroleum ether, benzene, solvent ether, chloroform, acetone, ethanol and methanol.
Finally drug is macerated with chloroform water.
Each time before extracting with new solvent the powdered drug material is dried in hot air oven below 50°C.
Each extract is concentrated by distilling off the solvent and then evaporating to dryness on water bath.
The extract obtained with each solvent is weighed.
Its percentage is calculated in terms of air-dried weight of the plant
material.
The colour and consistency of the extract is noted.
The extracts with different solvents can also be prepared by successive macerating (cold extraction) the powdered drug in order of increasing polarity.
Schematic presentation of extraction of different constituents from
fresh plant
Purification of Extract
Extract may contain some impurities such as chlorophyll, pigments, inorganic and organic acids, resins, fatty acids, etc.
Therefore, purification of the extract is necessary.
Purification of extract is done by various methods like sublimation, distillation, fractional distillation, fractional liberation, chromatography, etc.
Sublimation is used for purification of materials present in a crude
extract.
Fractional distillation is used for separation of components of
volatile oils.
Steam distillation is used for extraction of volatile oils and hydro-
cyanic acid from the plant material.
Q 6. Explain qualitative chemical examination of drugs in phytochemical investigation.
Qualitative chemical examination of drugs
The extracts obtained in preliminary phytochemical screening are then subjected to qualitative tests (chemical tests) for the identification of various plant constituents which are as follows:
TESTS FOR ALKALOIDS
Dragendorff’s test: To 2–3 ml extract added a few drops of
Dragendroff’s reagent observed for orange brown precipitate.
Mayer’s test: 2–3 ml extract with a few drops Mayer’s reagent observed for precipitate.
Hager’s test: 2–3 ml extract with Hager’s reagent observed for
yellow precipitate.
Wagner’s test: 2–3 ml with extract a few drops of Wagner’s reagent observed reddish brown precipitate.
TESTS FOR GLYCOSIDES
Tests for Cardiac Glycosides
Baljet’s test: A test solution observed for yellow to orange
colour with sodium picrate.
Bromine water test: Test solution dissolved in bromine water giving yellow precipitate.
Legal’s test (for cardenolides): To aqueous or alcoholic test solution, added 1 ml pyridine and 1 ml sodium nitroprusside observed for pink to red colour.
Test for deoxy sugars (Keller-Kiliani test): To 2 ml extract added glacial acetic acid, one drop of 5% FeCl3 and concentrated H2SO4 observed for reddish brown colour at junction of the two liquids and upper layers bluish green.
Libermann’s test (for bufadenolids): Mixed 3 ml extract with 3 ml acetic anhydride. Heated and cooled. Added a few drops concentrated H2SO4 observed for blue colour.
Test for Anthraquinone Glycosides
Modified Borntrager’s test: C-glycosides of anthraquinones require more drastic conditions for hydrolysis. Hydrolysis of the drug was carried out with 5 ml of dilute HCl and 5 ml of 5% solution of FeCl3. For hydrolyzed extract procedure was carried out as described under Borntrager’s test.
Borntrager’s test: Boil powdered drug with 5 ml of 10% Sulphuric acid for 5 mins. Filtered while hot, cooled the filtrate shaken gently with equal volume of benzene. Benzene layer was separated and then treated with half of its volume solution of ammonia (10%). Allow to separate it. The ammoniacal layer acquired rose pink colour due to the presence of anthraquinones.
Cyanogenetic Glycosides
Grignard’s test: Strips of sodium picrate filter paper were inserted between split cork stopper which was fitted into the neck of the test tube containing a small amount of powdered drug in water. Care was exercised that the paper did not touch the inner side of the test tube. The content was warmed for half an hour. The red colour of the strips indicated the presence of cyanogenetic glycosides.
Tests for Saponin Glycosides
Foam test: The drug extract or dry powder was shaken
vigorously with water. Persistent foam was observed.
Foaming index: Weigh 1 gm of finely powdered drug accurately and transfer to a 500 ml conical flask containing 100 ml of boiling water. Maintain at moderate boiling for 30 min. Cool and filter into a 100 ml volumetric flask and add sufficient water to make the volume to 100 ml.
Place the above decoction into 10 stoppered, graduated test-tubes in a series of successive portions of 1, 2, 3 up to 10 ml and adjust the volume of the liquid in each test tube water to 10 ml. Stopper the tubes and shake them vertically for 15 seconds, 2 frequencies/sec. Allow to stand for 15 min and measure the height of the foam.
The results are assessed as follows:
If the height of the foam in every tube is less than 1 cm, the foaming index is less than 100.
If a height of foam of 1 cm is measured in any tube, the volume of the plant material decoction in this tube is used to determine the index. If this tube is the first or second tube in the series, prepare an intermediate dilution in a similar manner to obtain a more precise result.
If the height of the foam is more than 1 cm in every tube, the foaming index is over 1000. In this case repeat the
determination using a new series of dilution of the decoction in order to obtain a result.
Foaming index =
100
a
a = volume in ml of the decoction used for preparing dilution in the tube where foaming to a height of 1 cm is observed.
Haemolytic test: Added test solution to one drop of blood placed on glass slide. Haemolytic zone whether appeared was observed.
Tests for Coumarin Glycosides
Test solution when made alkaline, observed for blue or green fluorescence.
TANNINS AND PHENOL COMPOUNDS
The extract treated with following reagents produces different colours.
5% FeCl3 solution: Deep blue-black colour.
Lead acetate solution: White precipitate.
Bromine water: Discoloration of bromine water.
Acetic acid solution: Red colour solution.
Dilute iodine solution: Transient red colour.
One drop NH4OH, excess 10% AgNO3 solution. Heated for 20 min in boiling water bath. White precipitate was observed, then dark silver mirror deposited on wall of test tube.
TESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATES
Molish’s test (general test): To 2–3 ml aqueous extract, added a few drops of a-naphthol solution in alcohol, shaken and added concentrated H2SO4 from sides of the test tube was observed for violet ring at the junction of two liquids.
Fehling’s test: 1 ml Fehling’s A and 1 ml Fehling’s B solutions were mixed and boiled for one minute. Equal volume of test solution was added. Heated in boiling water bath for 5–10 min was observed for yellow, then brick red precipitate.
Benedict’s test: Equal volume of Benedict’s reagent and test solution in test tube were mixed. Heated in boiling water bath for 5 min. Solution may appear green, yellow or red depending on amount of reducing sugar present in test solution.
Barfoed’s test: Equal volume of Barfoed’s reagent and test solution were added. Heated for 1–2 min, in boiling water bath and cooled. It is observed for red precipitate.
Cobalt-chloride test: 3 ml of test solution was mixed with 2 ml cobalt chloride, boiled and cooled. Added FeCl3 drops on NaOH solution. Solution observed for greenish blue (glucose), purplish (fructose) or upper layer greenish blue and lower layer purplish (mixture of glucose and fructose).
Tests for non-reducing sugars: Test solution does not give response to Fehling’s and Benedict’s test.
Tannic acid test for starch: With 20% tannic acid, test solution was observed for precipitate.
TESTS FOR PROTEINS
Biuret test (general test): To 3 ml test solution added 4% NaOH and a few drops of 1% CuSO4 solution observed for violet or pink colour.
Million’s test (for proteins): Mixed 3 ml test solution with 5 ml Million’s reagent, white precipitate obtained. Precipitate warmed turns brick red or precipitate dissolves giving red colour was observed.
Xanthoprotein test (for protein containing tyrosine or trypto-phan): Mixed 3 ml test solution with 1 ml concentrated H2SO4 observed for white precipitate.
Precipitation test: The test solution gave white colloidal precipitate with following reagents: Absolute alcohol, 5% HgCl2 solution, 5% CuSO4 solution, 5% lead acetate, 5% ammonium sulphate.
TESTS FOR SAPONIN GLYCOSIDES
Foam test: The drug extract or dry powder was shaken vigorously with water. Persistent foam was observed.
Foaming index: Weigh 1 gm of finely powdered drug accurately and transfer to a 500 ml conical flask containing 100 ml of boiling water. Maintain at moderate boiling for 30 min. Cool and filter into a 100 ml volumetric flask and add sufficient water to make the volume to 100 ml.
Place the above decoction into 10 stoppered, graduated test-tubes in a series of successive portions of 1, 2, 3 up to 10 ml
and adjust the volume of the liquid in each test tube water to 10 ml. Stopper the tubes and shake them vertically for 15 seconds, 2 frequencies/sec. Allow to stand for 15 min and measure the height of the foam.
The results are assessed as follows:
If the height of the foam in every tube is less than 1 cm, the foaming index is less than 100.
If a height of foam of 1 cm is measured in any tube, the volume of the plant material decoction in this tube is used to determine the index. If this tube is the first or second tube in the series, prepare an intermediate dilution in a similar manner to obtain a more precise result.
If the height of the foam is more than 1 cm in every tube, the foaming index is over 1000. In this case repeat the determination using a new series of dilution of the decoction in order to obtain a result.
Foaming index =
100
a
a = volume in ml of the decoction used for preparing dilution in the tube where foaming to a height of 1 cm is observed.
Haemolytic test: Added test solution to one drop of blood placed
on glass slide. Haemolytic zone whether appeared was observed.
TESTS FOR FLAVONOIDS
Shinoda test: To dried powder or extract, added 5 ml 95% ethanol, a few drops concentrated HCl and 0.5 g magnesium turnings. Pink colour was observed.
To small quantity of residue, added lead acetate solution observed for yellow coloured precipitate. Addition of increasing amount of sodium hydroxide to the residue showed yellow colouration, which was decolourised after addition of acid was observed.
Ferric chloride test: Test solution, added a few drops of ferric
chloride solution observed for intense green colour.
TEST FOR VITAMINS
Test for vitamin A: Dissolve a quantity equivalent to 10–15 units in 1 ml chloroform and add 5 ml of antimony trichloride solution, a transient blue colour is produced immediately.
Test for vitamin C (ascorbic acid): Dilute 1 ml of 2% w/v solution with 5 ml of water and added 1 drop of freshly prepared 5% w/v solution of sodium nitroprusside and 2 ml dilute NaOH solution. Added 0.6 ml of hydrochloric acid drop wise and stir the yellow colour turns blue.
Test for vitamin D: Dissolved a quantity equivalent to about 100 units of vitamin D, activating in chloroform and added 10 ml of antimony trichloride solution, a pinkish-red colour appeared at once.
TESTS FOR STEROIDS
Salkowski reaction: To 2 ml of extract, 2 ml chloroform and 2 ml concentrated H2SO4 was added. Shook well, whether chloroform layer appeared red and acid layer showed greenish yellow fluorescence was observed.
Libermann-Burchard test: Mixed 2 ml extract with chloroform. Added 1–2 ml acetic anhydride and 2 drops concentration H2SO4 from the side of test tube observed for first red, then blue and finally green colour.
Lieberman’s test: Mixed 3 ml extract with 3 ml acetic anhydride. Heated and cooled. Added a few drops concentrated H2SO4 observed for blue colour.
TESTS FOR AMINO ACIDS
Ninhydrin test (general test): 3 ml extract and 3 drops 5% Ninhydrin solution were heated in boiling water bath for 10 min. Observed for purple or bluish colour.
Test for tyrosine: Heated 3 ml extract and 3 drops Million’s reagent. Solution is observed for dark red colour.
Test for tryptophan: To 3 ml extract added a few drops glycoloxalic acid and concentrated H2SO4 observed for reddish-violet ring at junction of the two layers.
Q 1. Draw a well-labelled diagrammatic TS of the following crude drugs.
T.S. of Senna Leaflet
T.S. of Datura
Collenchyma
Epidermis
Trichomes
Upper epidermis
Mesophyll
Cortical parenchyma
VB Xylem: Lignified Phloem: Nonlignified
Palisade Spongy parenchyma
Lower epidermis
Collenchyma
150
T.S. of Cinnamon Bark
T.S. of Cinchona Bark
Pericycle
Pericyclic fibres Sclerides
Parenchymatous cells
Medullary rays
Phloem fibres Mucilage cells Oil cells
Cork
Phellogen Phelloderm Cortex Starch
Microsphenoidal crystals Secretion cell
Medullary ray Phloem fibre
Secondary phloem
T.S. of Fennel
Carpopore
Epicarp
Mesocarp
Vittae Endocarp
Endosperm Raphe Testa
T.S. of Clove
Cuticle Epidermis Oil glands
Sphaeraphide Vascular bundle
Pericycle fibre
Aerenchyma
Columella
T.S. of Ginger
T.S. of Nux-vomica Seed
Outer cork Inner cork
Cortex Oleoresin
Fibrovascular bundle
Starch grain in parenchymatous cells
Xylem vessels Fibres
Endodermis Vascular bundle Starch
Lignified trichomes
Epidermal cell Collapsed parenchyma
Endosperm
Plasmodesma Aleurone grains
Oil globules
T.S. of Ipecacuanha
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Cork Phellogen
Phelloderm
Starch grains Calcium oxalate
Phloem Medullary rays Xylem
Distinguish/Difference Between
1. Organized drug | Unorganized drug |
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155
2. Leaf | Leaflet |
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3. Roots | Rhizomes |
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4. Gums | Mucilages |
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5. Resins | Oleo-gum-resin |
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6. Gums | Resins |
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7. Acacia | Tragacanth |
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8. Volatile oil | Fixed oil |
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9. Fat | Oil |
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10. Fats | Waxes |
1. Fats are solid or semisolid in | 1. Waxes are fusible viscous solid |
nature above temperature 15–16C. | substances. |
2. Fats are chemically glycerides of | 2. These are esters of fatty acids with |
higher fatty acids. | higher high weight monocyclic |
alcohol such as cholesterol, cetyl | |
alcohol, etc. | |
3. Fats may be saponified by either | 3. Waxes are saponified only by |
aqueous or alcoholic alkali. | alcoholic alkali. |
4. Fats are suitable for internal | 4. Waxes are not suitable for internal |
consumption. | consumption. |
5. Examples: Coconut oil, cocoa | 5. Examples: Beeswax |
butter |
11. Plant fibre | Animal fibre |
|
|
12. Perfumes | Flavouring agents |
1. Perfumes are made from natural or synthetic materials. | 1. Flavouring agents are made from natural sources like lemon, orange, etc. |
2. Perfumes are used for creating a pleasant odour. | 2. Flavouring agents are used to mask the unpleasant odour and taste of the preparations. |
3. Perfume has a sweet and pleasant smell. | 3. Flavouring agents have a distinct taste. |
4. Perfume felt by nose. | 4. Flavouring agent is felt by taste. |
5. Perfumes are used to improve personal appearance in the society. | 5. Flavouring agents are used to improve psychological effect of the preparation. |
6. Perfumes are used in cosmetics and in toilet preparations. | 6. Flavouring agents are used in pharmaceutical and food industries. |
7. Examples: Rose, jasmine, sandal. | 7. Examples: Lemon, mint, orange, clove, lavender. |
13. Silk fibre | Wool fibre |
1. It is obtained from silkworm Bombyx mori. Family: Bombycidae. | 1. It is obtained from the fleece of sheep ovis aries. Family: Bovidae. |
2. It contains protein known as Fibroin. | 2. Wool contains protein known as keratin. |
3. Fibroin is made up of amino acids glycine and alanine. | 3. Keratin is rich in sulphur containing amino acid cystine. |
4. When warm with 5% KOH silk fibres are insoluble. | 4. When warm with 5%KOH wool fibres are soluble. |
5. With conc. HCl silk fibres are soluble. | 5. Wool fibres are insoluble with conc. HCl. |
6. Dissolve fibre in warm 20% NaOH and add a few drops of 10% lead acetate, silk fibres do not give black precipitate. | 6. Dissolve fibres in warm 20% NaOH and add a few drops of 10% lead acetate solution, wool fibres give black precipitate. |
7. Special types of sutures, sieves, and ligatures are prepared from silk. | 7. Wool fibres are used as filtering and straining medium, also used in manufacturing of crape bandages. |
14. Sumatra Benzoin | Siam Benzoin | ||
1. | Grayish brown to grey in colour. | 1. | Yellowish brown to rusty brown. |
2. | Aromatic and characteristic odour. | 2. | Agreeable and vanilla like odour. |
3. | It occurs in the form of lumps of varying sizes. | 3. | It occurs as hard and brittle masses. |
4. | When heated fumes of benzoic acid and cinnamic acid are produced. | 4. | When heated it is softened and becomes plastic. |
5. | On heating in a test tube with 10 ml solution of KMnO4 develops a strong odour of benzaldehyde in case of Sumatra Benzoin. | 5. | No odour of benzaldehyde in case of Siam Benzoin. |
Contd...
6. Heat benzoin in dry test tube covering with glass slide, observe the same slide under microscope. Cinnamic acid crystals are observed in case of Sumatra Benzoin. | 6. Cinnamic acid crystals are not observed in case of Siam Benzoin. |
15. Hydrolysable Tannins | Condensed Tannins |
|
|
16. Antiseptic | Disinfectant |
|
|
17. Black catechu | Pale catechu |
|
|
18. Adulterant/adulteration | Substitute/substitution |
|
|
Contd..
4. Examples: (i) Strychnos nuxvomica seeds are adulterated with strychonus blanda which does not contain strychnine at all. (ii) Ginger is adulterated with exhausted ginger. | 4. (i) Senna is substituted with inferior varieties like Dog senna, Arabian senna. (ii) Digitalis leaf is substituted with other parts of digitalis plant looking similar to leaf. |
19. Raw cotton | Surgical cotton |
|
|
Chemical Tests of the Crude Drugs
Important Specific Chemical Tests
Sr. No. | Chemical Test | For Drug |
1. | Borntrager’s test | Senna |
2. | Modified Borntrager’s test | Aloe |
3. | Keller-Kiliani test | Digitalis |
4. | Klunge’s test | Aloe |
5. | Vitali Morin test | Datura |
6. | Fiehe’s test | Honey |
7. | Gold Beater skin test | Tannins |
8. | Gambier fluorescin test | Pale catechu |
9. | Match stick test | Pale/black catechu |
10. | Guignard test | Linseed/arachis oil |
11. | Halaphene’s test | Cotton |
12. | Catechin test | Condensed tannins |
13. | Meconic acid test | Opium |
14. | Swelling factor test | Isapgula |
Note: All above tests were described under the chemical tests of the given drugs.
165
Chemical Tests of the Crude Drugs
Nux vomica:
T.S. of Nux vomica is stained with ammonium vanadate and sulphuric acid. The endospermic cells become purple due to the presence of Strychnine.
T.S. of Nux vomica is stained with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid. The endospermic cells become violet in colour due to the presence of Strychnine.
T.S. of Nux vomica is stained with concentrated nitric acid. The
endospermic cells take yellow colour due to the presence of Brucine.
T.S. of Nux vomica is stained with the test solution of Thionine, wait for 10 minutes, wash with alcohol. The lignified cells turn bluish-violet.
Honey:
Fiehe’s test: Stir 10 ml of honey with 5 ml of solvent ether for 5–10 minutes, allow it separate and draw off 2 ml of ethereal layer into a small petridish. Allow ethereal layer to evaporate, to the residue add 1 drop of resorcinol in hydrochloric acid, pure honey should not give cherry red colour. As artificial honey contains furfural it gives red colour.
Fehling’s test: Take 2 ml of aqueous solution of honey and to it add Fehling’s solution A and B. The reaction mixture is heated on a steam bath for 5–10 minutes. A brick red colour is produced due to presence of reducing sugars.
Benedict’s test: To 1 ml of aqueous solution of honey add 2 ml (10 drops) of Benedict’s reagent (CuSO4). The solution is then heated in a boiling water bath for 3–5 minutes. Reddish precipitate is observed.
Molisch’s test: To 2 ml of aqueous solution of honey add 5 drops of Molisch’s reagent mix well and add 2 ml of conc. H2SO4 from the sides of the tube. Violet/purple ring is observed at the junction of two liquids.
Tommer’s test: To 2 ml of aqueous solution of honey add Tommer’s reagent (NaOH + CuSO4), boil for 2 minutes and cool. Red colour is observed.
Barfoed’s test: To 2 ml of aqueous solution of honey add Barfoed’s reagent, boil for 2 minutes and cool. Brick red precipitate is observed.
Aloe:
Preparation of test solution: 1% solution of aloe is prepared by boiling with water and add 0.5% Kiesulgur to it and filter. The filtrate is used for the following tests.
Borax test (Schoeteten test): 0.5 gm of borax is added to a 5 ml test solution and heated; this solution when diluted with water gives fluorescence due to aloe-emodin.
Bromine test: Add equal quantity of test solution and bromine water (freshly prepared) gives yellow colour precipitate of tetra-barbaloin (tetra bromide).
Nitrous acid test: 2 ml of nitric acid is added to 5 ml of test solution.
Different colours are produced as given below:
Cape aloe—yellowish brown to green.
Curacao aloe—reddish orange.
Zanziber (socotrine) aloe—pale brownish yellow.
Klunge’s test: To an aq. solution of aloe add a drop of saturated copper sulphate solution (buffer solution) followed by NaCl 0.5 gm and 2 ml of 90% alcohol.
Cape aloe: Faint colouration
Curacao aloe: Wine red
Zanziber (socotrine) aloe: Do not respond.
Modified Born Trager’s test:
To the 0.1 gm of drug add 2 ml of 5% ferric chloride solution and 2 ml of dil. HCl.
Heats on a boiling water bath for 5 minutes cool and shake with
benzene.
Separate the benzene layer and add equal volume of dil. ammonia.
Pinkish red colour is produced with all varieties of aloe.
Myrrh:
When triturated with water it forms a yellowish emulsion.
Extract small quantity of powdered myrrh with ether and evaporate the solvent in such a way that a thin film of the resin is left in the dish. Pass the vapours of bromine or fumes of nitric acid over the film. A deep violet colour is produced.
Pale Catechu:
Gambier fluorescence test: Boil a little powdered drug with alcohol, filter and add sodium hydroxide solution to the filtrate, stir and add a few ml of light petroleum. Petroleum layer shows green fluorescence
Matchstick test: Dip the wooden matchstick in the solution of drug and dry it over a flame. Moisten the stick with hydrochloric acid and warm. Purple colour appears on the matchstick due to conversion of catechu into Phloroglucinol.
Vanillin hydrochloric acid test: Make solution containing vanillin 1 ml, alcohol 10 ml and dil. hydrochloric acid 10 ml, it gives pink or red colour due to the formation of Phloroglucinol.
Heat about 0.5 gm of powdered drug with 5 ml of chloroform in a dish and evaporate the filtrate on a water bath. A greenish yellow residue is left due to the presence of chlorophyll in the drug.
With ferric chloride solution, it gives bluish black colour.
With lime water, pale catechu gives brown colour.
Black Catechu:
With ferric chloride it gives bluish black colour.
Black catechu gives pink or red colour with vanillin hydrochloric
acid solution.
Lime water gives brown colour with aqueous solution of black
catechu.
Matchstick test: Dip the wooden matchstick in the solution of drug and dry it over a flame. Moisten the stick with hydrochloric acid and warm. Purple colour appears on the matchstick due to conversion of catechu into Phloroglucinol.
Starch:
1 gm of starch is boiled with 15 ml of water and cooled; a translucent
viscous jelly is produced.
Above jelly turns deep blue by addition of iodine solution. This
blue colour disappears on warming and reappears on cooling.
Hydrolyse the starch solution with acid and then add Fehling’s solution A and B in equal quantity and heat it in water bath which gives brick red precipitate.
Agar:
Boil 1% solution of agar. On cooling it forms a stiff jelly.
When mounted in solution of ruthenium red and examine under
microscope, the mounted particles acquire pink colour.
To 0.2% solution of agar in water, add solution of tannic acid no precipitate is produced.
When N/50 iodine solution is added to the powder, it produces crimson to brown colour.
Agar is incinerated to ash; dilute hydrochloric acid is added and observed under microscope. Skeletons and sponge spicules of diatoms are seen.
On warming a little agar in solution of KOH, canary yellow colour is produced.
Hydrolyse 1% aq. solution of agar with 0.5 ml of concentrated HCl. Divide this hydrolyse solution into two parts:
Part A: To this part add 1 ml of Fehling’s solution A and B and warm on water bath, colour of the Fehling’s solution is reduced.
Part B: To this part add solution of barium chloride, white precipitate of barium sulphate is produced.
Tragacanth:
When warm with NaOH solution gives a canary yellow colour.
With iodine solution gives green colour.
With ruthenium red particles do not acquire pink colour.
Aqueous solution of tragacanth produces a white precipitate with lead acetate.
Hydrolyse the aqueous solution of tragacanth with dil. HCl by boiling in ware bath. Cool it, adds equal quantity of Fehling’s solution A and B, heat again, red precipitate is observed.
Gelatin:
Aqueous solution of gelatin gives precipitate with solution of trinitrophenol.
On heating gelatin solution with soda lime, ammonia gas is evolved.
Aqueous solution of gelatin precipitates mercuric nitrate solution (Millon’s reagent), forming white colour, which turns red on heating.
Formaldehyde makes gelatin hard and insoluble after drying.
To aqueous solution of gelatin, add drop of picric acid or tannic acid solution, precipitate is produced.
Acacia:
Solution of lead subacetate gelatinizes aqueous solution of Indian gum.
Mount a small quantity of acacia powder in ruthenium red solution and examine under microscope. The particles do not get red colour.
To 0.1 gm powder, add 1 ml of N/50 iodine. The mixture does not acquire crimson colour.
Hydrolyse the aqueous solution of gum acacia in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid by boiling. To it add Fehling’s A and B and heat again. Red precipitate is observed, which confirms the presence of reducing sugar.
To the aqueous solution of gum acacia, add 0.5 ml solution of hydrogen peroxide and 0.5 ml solution of benzidine in alcohol (1% solution), shake it well. A blue colour is produced (due to oxidase enzyme).
Aqueous solution of drug is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid and heated. To it barium chloride solution is added. No precipitate is formed.
Benzoin:
To a solution of benzoin in alcohol add water. Solution becomes
milky and acidic to litmus.
To the drug add solvent ether, decant ether layer and to it add 2/3 drops of H2SO4. A deep purplish-red colour in case of Sumatra Benzoin.
Heat benzoin in a test tube with solution of KMnO4, it develops strong odour of benzaldehyde.
To the alcoholic solution of Benzoin, add FeCl3, green colour develops in case of Sumatra Benzoin.
Heat small quantity of benzoin in dry test tube, cover the opening of test with clean dry glass slide, cool it and observe slide under microscope, cinnamic acid crystals are observed.
Guar Gum:
It does not acquire olive green colour with weak solution of iodine.
With solution of ruthenium red, the gummy solution does not
acquire pink colour.
About 2% solution of lead acetate gives precipitate with the solution of guar gum.
Dissolve 0.5 gm of guar gum in 20 ml of water by shaking. To it add 0.5 ml of hydrogen peroxide and 0.5 ml of 1% solution of benzidine in alcohol. No blue colour is produced.
Wool:
Wool is insoluble in 66% sulphuric acid, concentrated hydrochloric acid and cuoxam reagent.
When lead acetate is added to a solution of wool in caustic soda, a
black precipitate is formed due to high sulphur content.
Wool hairs are soluble in 1.25 sodium hydroxide solution.
Wool hairs are stained with ammoniacal copper oxide solution.
Moistened the wool fibres with N/50 iodine solution followed by
a drop of 80% w/w sulphuric acid, a yellow colour is produced.
Warm/boil wool fibres with picric acid. Then rinse with water,
permanent yellow stain is produced.
Warm with Millon’s reagent, red stain is produced.
Cotton:
Soak cotton fibres in iodine water and dry. Add a few ml of 80% sulphuric acid, trichomes assume purplish-blue or bluish-green colour.
Ammoniacal copper oxide solution (cuoxam reagent) dissolves raw cotton fibres with the formation of balloons’, while absorbent cotton dissolves completely with uniform swelling.
Cotton is insoluble in dilute sodium hydroxide solution and hydrochloric acid. It is soluble in 66% of sulphuric acid.
With iodinated zinc chloride solution, it becomes violet coloured.
To 0.1 gm add 10 ml of zinc chloride solution, heat to 40C, fibres
do not dissolve.
Halaphene’s Test: Cotton plugged test tube containing 2.5 ml of sample (cotton seed oil). Add equal volume of amyl alcohol. Add
2.5 ml of 1% solution of sulphur in carbon bisulphide, boil the test tube in water bath for 30 minutes, positive crimson red colour is produced which shows purity of cotton seed oil.
Asafoetida:
Fractured surface of the drug, if treated with sulphuric acid forms red or reddish brown colour.
When treated with 50% of nitric acid, the drug gives colour.
When triturated with water, it forms yellowish orange emulsion.
Umbelliferone test: Triturate about 0.5 gm of drug with sand and 5 ml of hydrochloric acid, to it add a little quantity of water, filter and to the filtrate add equal volume of ammonia. A blue florescence is produced due to presence of umbelliferone.
Senna:
Borntrager’s test: Boil the powdered leaves with dilute sulphuric acid. Filter immediately, separate the filtrate and cool. Mix the filtrate with double volume of any one of the water insoluble organic solvents like benzene, chloroform or carbon tetrachloride. Shake it well and separate the organic solvent layer. To the layer of organic solvent add equal quantity of dilute ammonia. The ammoniacal layer becomes pink and finally red indicating the presence of anthraquinone derivatives.
Digitalis:
Keller-Kiliani test:
Boil 1 gm of powder drug with 10 ml of 70% alcohol for
3 minutes and filter it.
To the filtrate add 5 ml of water and 0.5 ml of strong solution of
lead acetate.
Filter it and the filtrate is treated with equal volume of chloroform and shake.
Chloroform layer is separated and evaporated to obtain residue.
Then the extract which is obtained is dissolved in glacial acetic acid and cooled.
Add 2 drops of ferric chloride solution to it.
Transfer the above contents to a test tube containing 2 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid, a reddish brown layer acquires bluish green colour after standing due to digitoxose
Baljet test: A thick section of leaves with sodium picrate solution
shows yellow orange colour.
Regal’s test: Dissolve the drug in 20 ml of pridine, add 2 ml of sodium nitroprusside solution, and make alkaline with sodium hydroxide solution. It gives pink red colour.
Turmeric:
Powdered drug with sulphuric acid gives crimson colour.
The aqueous solution of turmeric with boric acid gives reddish
brown colour which on addition of alkali changes to greenish blue.
With acetic anhydride and concentrated sulphuric acid, it gives violet colour. When this test is observed under UV light, red fluorescence is seen.
Prepare a tincture of turmeric and impregnate a filter paper with it. Treat the impregnate paper with borax solution, a green colour is produced.
Take powdered turmeric in a test tube or on slide and add a solution of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, the powder gives red to violet colour.
Ergot:
To defatted ergot powder add 50% potassium hydroxide solution and heat at 170C 1 hr, cool, wash thoroughly with alcohol and to it add first iodine solution and then 20% sulphuric acid, violet colour is produced.
Extract about gm of powdered ergot with 10 ml of solvent ether along with 0.5 ml of dilute sulphuric acid. Filter the extract and to the filtrate add 5 ml of cold saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate. The aqueous layer becomes red or violet.
In UV light, Ergot powder shows red fluorescence.
Extract ergot with chloroform and sodium carbonate and to extract add paradimethylaminobenzaldehye, 35% sulphuric acid and 0.5% ferric chloride solution. A blue colour is produced (Ergotoxin test).
Rhubarb:
By addition of ammonia, it acquires pink colour.
With 5% potassium hydroxide, blood red colouration is produced.
Under UV radiations Rheum emodi gives brown colouration.
Borntrager’s test for anthraquinone is positive with rhubarb.
Balsam of Tolu:
When heated and pressed in between two glass slides and examined under microscope, it exhibits crystals of cinnamic acid.
To alcoholic solution of balsam of tolu, add solution of ferric chloride, green colour is produced.
Warm gently about 1 gm of the drug with 5 ml of potassium permanganate solution, odour of benzaldehyde is produced.
Isapgula:
Swelling factor test (Swelling Index): Put 1 gm of isapgula in the measuring cylinder (25 ml capacity) in 20 ml water with occasional shaking. The volume occupied by the seeds after 24 hours of swelling is measured. This is known as swelling factor or swelling index.
Swelling factor for isapgula seeds is 10 to 14 ml.
To dry seeds of isapgula add one drop of test solution of Chinese-ink, mucilage shows transparent and spherically dilated fragments on black background.
Being mucilage chemically, isapgula gives pink colour with the
solution of ruthenium red.
To dry seeds add a drop of Thionine test solution, wait for 10 minutes, wash with alcohol, mucilage turns violet-red.
Datura:
Vitali-Morin Reaction: The tropane alkaloids are treated with fuming nitric acid, followed by evaporation to dryness and addition of methanolic potassium hydroxide solution to an acetone solution of nitrated residue. Violet colouration takes place due to tropane derivatives.
On addition of silver nitrate solution of hyoscine hydrobromide, yellowish white precipitate is formed, which is insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in dilute ammonia.
Castor oil:
It mixes with half its volume of light petroleum ether (40–60C) and partly soluble in its 2 volumes. Add to the oil an equal volume of alcohol, clear liquid is obtained. On cooling at 0C and on storage for three hours, the liquid remains clear.
Cinchona:
Heat the powdered bark in a dry test tube with little glacial acetic acid. It yields purple vapours. If treated with dilute sulphuric acid, it gives blue fluorescence.
To the powdered drug, add bromine water and ammonia and heat. Emrald green colour due to formation of thalleoquin, is produced.
Ipecacaunha:
To about 2.5 gm powered drug, add 20 ml of hydrochloric acid
and 5 ml of water. Shake it well and filter. To the filtrate, add
0.5 gm of potassium chlorate. The presence of yellow colour gradually changing to red, after standing, confirms the presence of emetine.
Ultra-violet radiation shows orange fluorescence with emetine.
Opium:
Meconic acid test: 1 gm of opium dissolved in 5 ml of water, heat it and filter. To the filtrate add ferric chloride solution. Deep reddish purple colour is produced, which shows presence of opium alkaloids in the form of salt of meconic acid.
Linseed:
Test for mucilage: T.S. of linseed treated with ruthenium red, the epidermis shows red stain.
Guignard’s Paper Test (Sodium Picrate Test): Powder of linseed moistened with water placed in a conical flask. Sodium picrate paper (Guignard Paper) is suspended in the neck of the flask by using cork in it. Brick red colour is produced shows presence of linseed.
Kaolin:
Heat the kaolin on charcoal block with cobalt nitrate. It results in
a blue mass due to alumina.
Fuse 1 gm of kaolin with 2 gm anhydrous sodium carbonate, warm with water and filter. Acidify the filtrate with hydrochloric acid, dilute and warm. Residue of silica is obtained, the solution after neutralizing gives reactions characteristic to aluminium.
Pectin:
10% aqueous solution forms stiff gel on cooling.
To 5 ml of 1% solution, add 1 ml of 2% solution of potassium hydroxide and set aside at room temperature for 15 minutes. A transparent gel or semi-gel is formed. Acidify gel with dilute hydrochloric acid and shake well. A voluminous, colourless, gelatinous precipitate is formed which when boiled becomes white and flocculent.
Shark Liver Oil:
Dissolve 1 gm of shark liver oil in 1 ml of chloroform and treat with
0.5 ml of H2SO4. It acquires light violet colour changing to purple
and finally to brown due to vitamin A.
Dissolve the drug in 10 ml of chloroform and treat with saturated solution of antimony trichloride in chloroform, shake well, a blue colour is developed due to vitamin A.
Liquorice:
When moistened with 80% sulphuric acid, liquorice develops a deep yellow colour due to change of flavone glycoside liquiritin to chalcone glycoside.
Clove:
If transverse section of clove is treated with strong potassium hydroxide solution, the needle-shaped crystals of potassium eugenate are observed.
Alkaloids:
Mayer’s test: Alkaloids gives cream or pale yellow precipitate
with Mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric iodide solution)
Dragendorff’s test: Alkaloids gives brown or reddish brown coloured precipitate with Dragendorff’s reagent (potassium bismuth iodide solution)
Wagner’s test: Alkaloids give brown or reddish brown coloured precipitate with Wagner’s reagent (iodine and potassium iodide solution)
Hager’s test: Alkaloids with Hager’s reagent give yellow precipitate
(saturated solution of picric acid).
Tannins:
Gold beater skin test: A piece of gold beaters skin (membrane of intestine of ox) + 2% dilute HCl, with distilled water. Add tannin solution. Allow it to react for 5 minutes. Add 1% ferrous sulphate solution.
Observation: Brown to black colour shows positive test for tannins.
Phenazone test: 5 ml of aqueous drug extract + 0.9 gm sodium acid phosphate (NaHPO4), warm, cool, filter to get filtrate. Add 2% phenazone solution.
Observation: Coloured precipitate is observed.
Catechin test: Take drug extract of tannin solution and boil a dip matchstick in it. Dry in air. Add a drop of concentrated solution of HCl.
Observation: Purple or violet colour is observed (condensed tannin)
Tannin with aqueous FeCl3 solution gives blue, black or green
colour.
Tannins, when treated with 1% gelatin solution and 10% NaCl solution, a precipitate is observed.
Morphological Characters of the Crude Drugs
Question: Give the morphological/external characters/macroscopy of the drugs along with diagram.
1. Ginger
| Morphological characters:
surface. |
178
Morphological characters:
Colour: Green to yellowish brown
Odour: Sweet aromatic
Taste: Strongly aromatic and mucilaginous
Size: 5 to 10 mm 2 to 4 mm
Shape: Straight or slightly curved
Extra features:
Bifid stylopod at the top
Five-sided fruit in the form of cremo-carp with pedicels.
Fruits are glabrous with 5 primary ridges.
Shows 2 commissural vittae.
2. Fennel
Morphological characters:
Colour: Yellowish brown
Odour: Aromatic
Taste: Spicy and aromatic
Size: 2 to 4 mm in length
Extra features:
Cremocarpus fruit with 10 primary and 8 secondary ridges.
Stylopod is present at the apex.
Morphological characters:
Colour: Greenish brown
Odour: Odourless
Taste: Extremely bitter
Size: 10 to 30 mm in diameter and 4
to 6 mm in thickness
Shape: Disc-shaped, flat, concavo-convex and margin of the seed is rounded.
Extra features:
Surface is silky, radially arranged densely covered with unicellular coverings of trichomes.
Seeds are extremely hard.
3. Coriander
4. Nux vomica
Morphological characters:
Colour: Crimson to dark brown
Odour: Slightly aromatic
Taste: Pungent followed by numbness
Size: 10 to 17.5 mm in length
Extra features:
Dome-shaped corolla.
Hypantheum surrounded by sepals.
The corolla consists of unexpanded membranes of petals.
5. Clove
Morphological characters:
Colour: Greenish brown or brown
Odour: Strongly aromatic
Taste: Pungent and aromatic
Size: Kernels about 20 to 30 mm in length and 20 mm broad.
Extra features:
Kernels are externally covered with small irregular patches or lines (wrinkled)
6. Nutmeg
Morphological characters:
Colour: Pale green
Odour: Characteristic
Taste: Bitter
Extra features:
Leaves are unequal at the base with acute apex
Each leaf has 4 to 6 coarse veins on each side.
Margin has teeth which divides the sinuses.
Base is asymmetrical.
Petiole is short.
7. Datura Leaf
Morphological characters:
Colour: Yellow to yellowish brown
Odour: Characteristic
Taste: Slightly bitter
Size: 2 to 5 cm in length, 1 to 2 cm
in thickness.
Shape: Round, ovate, oblong cylindrical and short.
Extra features:
Root scars and annulations are present.
Nodes and bud are present.
Fracture is horny.
8. Turmeric
Morphological characters:
Colour:
Outer surface: Dull yellow brown
Inner surface: Dark yellow brown
Odour: Aromatic
Taste: Sweet followed by worm sensation.
Size: 1 meter in length and 1 cm in diameter
Shape: Compound quill.
Extra features:
Splintery fracture.
Bark is free of cork.
9. Cinnamon
Morphological Characters:
Colour: Pinkish green or brown
Odour: Odourless
Taste: Mucilaginous
Size: 10 to 35 mm in length and 1 to 1.75 mm in width
Shape: Ovate.
Extra features:
Seeds are hard and smooth.
Grey or reddish brown oval spot in the centre of convex surface
Concave surface contains the hilum covered with thin membrane having two perforations.
10. Ispaghula
Morphological characters:
Colour: Fruits are greenish or grey
Odour: odourless
Taste: Bitter
Size: 1 to 1.5 cm in length
Shape: Fruits are globose, oval, rounded.
Extra feature:
Consist of 5 to 10 woody cocci each with two pairs of hard sharp divergent spines.
Morphological characters:
Colour: Leaves are grayish green to pale green
Odour: Odourless
Taste: Bitter
Size: 20 to 30 cm in length and 4 to 10 cm in width.
Extra features:
Leaves are petiolate with acute apex.
Base is asymmetrical.
Leaf margin is irregular with dentate.
Venation is reticulate with prominent midribs.
11. Gokharu
12. Hyoscymus leaf
Morphological characters:
Colour: Dark brown
Odour: Slight
Taste: Slight, causing tingling sensation followed by numbness of tongue.
Size: 4 to 10 cm in length and 1 to
3.5 cm in width
Shape: Conical.
Extra features:
Roots are slightly twisted and deeply
wrinkled.
Fracture is short and horny.
The border end of root shows numerous rootlets and scars.
13. Aconite
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
1 | Aloe | Korphad, Musabbar | Leaves | Aloe barbadensis Miller | Liliaceae | Aloin, Barbaloin, Aloe-emodin | Purga- tive, laxa-tive. |
2 | Rhubarb | Radix, Rheum, Rhizomerhei | Rhizomes | Rheum emodi Wall | Polygonaceae | Rhein, Chrysophanol, Physicon, Aloeemodin. | Purgative, laxative. |
3 | Castor oil | Oleum ricini, Ricinus oil | Seeds | Ricinus communis | Euphorbiaceae | Ricinoleic acid | Purgative, laxative. |
4 | Isapgula | Indian psyllium, Isabgol, Plantago, Sabja. | Seeds | Plantago ovate Forscal | Plantag-inaceace | Pentosan, Aldobionic acid | Purgative, laxative. |
5 | Senna | Sonamukhi, Tinnevelly senna, Indian senna. | Dried leaflets | Cassia angustifolia Vahl | Leguminoceae | Sennoside-A, B, C, D., Sennidin, Rhein, Kaemferol, Aloe-emodin | Purgative, laxative. |
D
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
184
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
6 | Digitalis | Foxglove leaves, Digitalis leaves | Leaves | Digitalis purpurea | Scrophulariaceae | Digoxin, Digitoxin, Digoxigenin, Digitoxigenin, Purpurea glycosides-A&B | Cardiotoinc |
7 | Arjuna | Arjuna bark | Bark | Terminalia arjuna Rob | Combretaceae | Arjunolic acid, Arjunic acid, Arjungenin, Arjunine, Arjunetine | Cardiotoinc |
8 | Cardamom | Cardamom fruits, Cardamom seeds, Elaichi. | Fruits | Elettaria cardamom Matonavar | Zingiberaceae | Cineole, Borneol, Terpinene | Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, flavouring agents, stomachic. |
9 | Black Pepper | Kali mirri, Kali mirch | Fruits | Piper nigrum Linn | Piparaceae | Piperine, Piperidine, Phellandrene, Caryophyllene. | Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, flavouring agents, stomachic. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
185
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
10 | Coriander | Dhania, coriandar fruits, dhane. | Fruits | Coriandrum sativum Linn | Umbelliferae | D-linalol (Coriandrol), L-borneol, Geraniol, Pinene. | Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, vlavouring agents, stomachic. |
11 | Fennel | Badishep, Saunf, Fructus foeniculum, Fennel fruits | Fruits | Foeniculum vulgare Miller | Umbelliferae | Fenchone, Anethole, Limonene, Phellandrine | Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, flavouring agents, stomachic. |
12 | Ginger | Zingiber, Ale, Adrak, Gingerin. | Fruits | Zingiber officinale Roscoe | Zingiberaceae | Gingerol, Zingiberene, Shagol, Zingerone | Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, flavouring agents, stomachic. |
13 | Asafoetida | Devils-Dung, Hing, Gum Asafoetida. | Rhizomes and roots | Ferula foetida Regel | Umbelliferae | Ferulic acid, Umbelliferone, Asaresino-tannol. | Carminative, nervine tonic, flavouring agent, intestinal antiseptic. |
14 | Cinnamon | Kalmi-Dalchini, Dalchini, Cinnamon bark, Ceylon cinnamon | Bark | Cinnamomum zeylenicum Nees | Lauraceae | Cinnamadle-hyde, Eugenol, Phellandrine, Pinene, Cymeme, Caryophyal-lene. | Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, flavouring agents, stomachic |
186
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
15 | Nutmeg | Jaiphal, Nux Moschata, Banda soap, Myristica. | seeds | Myristica fragrans Houtt | Myristicaceae | Myristicin, Elemicin, Saffrole, Geraniol, Terpineol, Camphene. | Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, flavouring agents, stomachic, soap industries |
16 | Clove | Laung, Clove bud, Caryophyllum, Clove flower. | Flower Bud | Eugenia caryophyllus | Myrtaceae | Eugenol, Caryophyllenes, Eugenin | Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, flavouring agents, stomachic, dental analgesics, antiseptic. |
17 | Ajowan | Bishop’s Weed, Ova, Trychyspermum copticum, Carum copticum hieren | Dried ripe fruits | Trychyspermum ammi Sprague | Umbelliferae | P-cymene, Terpene, Pinene. | Antispasmodic, stimulant, carminative, antiseptic, insecticide, antifungal, anthelmintic. |
18 | Black Catechu | Kattha, Khair, Cutch, Khadir. | Dried aq. extract | Acacia catechu Wild | Leguminoceae | Quercetin, Acacatechin, Catechu red, Quercitrin, Catechin. | Astringent, used in cough and diarrohea, used in dying and tanning industries. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
187
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
19 | Pale Catechu | Gambier, Gambir | Dried aq. extract | Uncaria gambier Roxburg | Rubiaceae | Catechutannic acid, Catechin, Catechu red, Quercetin, Gambir-fluorecin. | Used in diarrhea, local astringent, used in dying and tanning industries |
20 | Hyoscymus | Henbane, Hyoscymus herb, Hyoscymus leaves. | Dried leaves and flowering tops. | Hyosymus niger Linn | Solanaceae | Hyoscyamine, Hyoscine (Scopolamine), Atropine. | Antispasmodic, anti-asthmatic, sedative, expectorant, to relieve spasms of urinary tract. |
21 | Datura | Thorn apple leaves, Datura herb | Dried leaves and flowering tops | Datura metel | Solanaceae | Hyoscine, Atropine | In asthma and cough, antispasmodic, CNS depressant. |
22 | Belladonna | Deadly night shade leaf, Belladona leaf | Leaves | Atropa belladonna Linn | Solanaceae | Hyoscyamine, Aesculetin (Scopolamine), Belladonine, Hyoscine, Atropine | Parasympathetic depressant, antispasmodic, as antidote. |
188
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
23 | Aconite | Monk shood, Bechnag, Visha, Aconite root. | Dried roots | Aconitum napellus Linn | Ranunculaceae | Aconitine, Hypoaconitine, Aconitic acid, Neopelline, Aconine, Neoline. | In rheumatism, inflammation also used as analgesic and cardiac depressant. |
24 | Ashwagandha | Indian Ginseng, Withania roots, Asgand. | Dried roots | Withania somnifera | Solanaceae | Withanine, Withanolide, Withaferine, Withasomnine, Anaferine, Cuscohygrine, Vasamine. | As a sedative and hypnotic, in the treatment of gout, rheumatism and hypertension. |
25 | Ephedra | Ma-Hung, | Dried young stems | Ephedra gerardiana | Ephedraceae | Ephedrine, Nor-ephedrine, Pseudoephe-drine | Antiasthamatic, in high fever and whooping cough. |
26 | Opium | Raw opium, Afim. | Dried latex from unripe capsule | Papaver somniferum Linn | Papaveraceae | Morphine, Papaverine, Narcotine, Codeine, Thebaine, Noscapine. | Narcotic analgesic, hypnotic, codeine as antitussive, opium is used as diaphoretic and in diarrhoea. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
189
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
27 | Cannabis | Indian Hemp, Marijuana, Ganja, Bhang. | Dried Flowering tops | Cannabis sativa Linn | Cannabinaceae | Cannabinol, Cannabidiol, Cannabigerol, Cannabidiolic acid, Cannbi-chromeme. | Used as narcotic, sedative and analgesic. |
28 | Nux vomica | Crow-fig, Semen strychni, Nux vomica seeds | Dried ripe Seeds | Strychonus nux vomica Linn | Loganiaceae | Strychnine, Brucine, Vomicine, Pseudo-strychnine. | As a bitter stomachic and tonic, CNS stimulant, stimulates respiratory and CVS systems. |
29 | Rauwolfia | Chhotachand, Sarpgandha, Snakeroot, Rauwolfia root | Roots | Rauwolfia serpentine Benth | Apocyanaceae | Reserpine, Serpentine, Rauwolfinine, Reserpinene, Resinnamine, Ajmaline, Ajmalicine. | Antihypertensive, tranqullizer, in snakebite. |
190
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
30 | Vasaka | Adhatoda, Adulsa | Fresh leaves | Adhatoda vasica Nees | Acanthaceae | Vasicine, Vasicinone. Vasakin, Adhatodine, Betain. | Expectorant, bronchodilator, antitussive. |
31 | Tulsi | Sacred basil, Holy basil | Fresh and dried leaves | Ocimum sanctum Linn. | Labiateae | Eugenol, carvacrol, Caryophylline. | Antibacterial, insecticidal, stimulant. |
32 | Tolu balsam | Balsam of Tolu | Solid or semisolid balsam | Myroxylon Balsamum Linn. | Leguminaceae | Vanillin, Cinnamic acid, Benzoic acid, Cinnamein, Toluresinotannol. | Expectorant, flavouring agent, antiseptic, in perfumery. |
33 | Guggul | Scented bdellium, Indian bdellium, Gum guggul. | Oleo-gum-resin from bark | Commiphora weightii Bhand. | Burseraceae | Gugguloster-one-Z, Guggu-losterol-I, E-guggulo-sterone, Myrecene, Caryophylline | Anti-Rheumatic, antiinflam-matory, Hypoli-pedemic, hypocholesteremic. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
191
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
34 | Colchicum | Meadow saffron, Colchicum seeds | Seeds | Colchicum luteum Baker. | Liliaceae | Colchicine, Demecolicine, Colchicoresin. | In gout and rheumatism, to control malignant tumour |
35 | Chaulmoogra oil | Hydnocarpus oil, Gynocardia oil | Fixed oil from seeds | Hydnocarpus anthelminitica Piere | Flacourtiaceae | Choulmoogric acid, Hydnocarpic acid | Antileprotic, antitubercular drug. |
36 | Vinca | Periwinkle, Sadaphuli, Vinca rosea, Catharanthus | Whole plant | Catheranthus roseus G. | Apocyanaceae | Vinblastin, Vincristin, Vindoline, Vindolinine, Catharan-thine, Ajmalicine, Serpentine, Lochnerine. | Anticancer, in leukaemia, hodgkins disease, also exhibits hypotensive and antidiabetic activity |
37 | Gymnema | Gudmar, Madhu nashini. | Leaves | Gymnema sylvestre R. | Asclepiadaceae | Gymnemic acid, Phytin. | Antidiabetic, stomachic, stimulant, laxative, diuretic. |
38 | Pterocarpus | Malabarkino, Bijasal, Indian kino tree, Rakta-chandan, Asana | Dried juice | Pterocarpus marsupium Linn | Leguminaceae | Kino red, Kinnotanic acid, Kinoin, Pyrocatechin | Antidiabetic, astringent, in diarrhea and dysentery. |
192
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
39 | Gokharu | Puncture vine | Fruits | Tribulus terrestris Linn | Zygophyllaceae | Harmine, Harman, Diosgenin, Gitogenin, Chlorogenin, Rusogenin, Kaemferol, Tribuloside. | Diuretic, as a tonic, in painful menstruation, as aphrodisiac and in gout. |
40 | Punarnava | Hog weed, Rakta Punarnava | Fresh as well as dried herb | Boerhaavia diffussa Linn | Nyctaginaceae | Punarnavine, Punarnavoside, Ursolic acid | Diuretic, expectorant, stomachic, in jaundice. |
41 | Ipecacaunha | Ipecac | Dried roots and rhizomes | Cephaelis ipecacaunha A. | Rubiaceae | Emetine, Cephaline, Ipecacauhin, Psychotrine, Emetamine, Ipecacaunhic acid. | Antidysentric, expectorant. |
42 | Turmeric | Indian Saffron, Haldi, Haridra. | Dried as well as fresh rhizomes | Curcuma longa Linn. | Zingiberaceae | Curcumin, Curcuminoids, Zingiberine, Camphene, Turmerone, Borneole. | Antiseptic, expectorant, as a condiment or spice, colouring agent. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
193
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
43 | Benzoin | Sumatra Benzoin, Gum Benzoin, Loban. | Balsamic resin | Styrax benzoin | — | Benzoic acid, Cinnamic acid, Sumaresinolic acid, Coniferyl alcohol, Coniferyl benzoate. | Antiseptic and protective, expectorant, carminative, diuretic. |
44 | Myrrh | Gum Myrrh, Bol, Myrrha | Oleo-gumresin | Commiohora molmol Engler. | Burseraceae | Commiphoric acid, Herbo-myrrholic acid, Terpenes, Eugenol.Cumi-nical-dehyde | Antiseptic, stimulant, protective, in mouthwashes and gargles. |
45 | Neem | Margosa, Nim, Limb, Meliazadirachta | Leaves and aerial parts | Azadirachta indica Linn. | Meliaceae | Margosine, Azadirachtin, Nimbin, Nimbidin, Nimbidinine, Nimbiol, Nimaton, Nimbosterol, Salanin. | Antiseptic, insecticidal, insect repellent, antifeedent, antimicrobial. seeds have spermicidal activity |
194
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
46 | Cinchona | Jesuits Bark, Peruvian Bark | Bark | Cinchona calisaya Wedd. | Rubiaceae | Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine, Cinchonidine, Quinovin, Cinchonicine, Cinchofulvic acid, Quinic acid. | Antimalarial, antipyretic, bitter Tonic, stomachic, cardiac depressant. |
47 | Ergot | Ergot of Rye, Ergota | Dried Scleroticum of fungus | Claviceps pupurea Tulasne. | Hypocreaceae | Ergometrine, Ergotamine, Ergocrystine, Ergocryptine, Ergotaminine, Ergosine, Ergosinine. | Oxytocic, in migraine, used in labour to assist delivery and to reduce postpartum haemorrhage. |
48 | Shark liver oil | Oleum Selachoid | Fixed oil from Shark fish | Hypoprion brevirostris | — | Vitamin A | In night blindness, antixero-pthalmic factor, nutritive, in burns and sunburns. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
195
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
49 | Amla | Indian Goose berry, Emblica, Embelic Myrobalan, Awala | Fruit | Emblica officinales Gaerth. | Euphorbiaceae | Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), Phyllemblin, Pectin. | In scurvy, diuretic, laxative, In diarrhea and dysentery, in jaundice, dyspepsia and anemia. |
50 | Diastase | Amylose, salivary diastase, malt diastase | Amyloytic enzyme | — | Graminae | Amyloytic enzymes | As a digestant. |
51 | Yeast | Baker’s yeast | Fungus | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Saccharomycetaceae | Vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and biotin. Enzymes like invertase, diastase, zymase, and maltase. | In bread industry, in manufacture of alcohol, beer, and wines, as a source of vitamin D. |
52 | Papaya | — | Fruiting tree | Carica papaya | Cariaceae | Proteolytic enzymes like papain and chymopapain | Digestant, antiinflam-matory, in clarification of beverages. |
196
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
53 | Peppermint oil | Oleum Mentha Piperita | Vol-oil from fresh flowering tops | Mentha piperita Linn. | Labiateae | L-Menthol, Pule-gone, Menthone, L-limonene, Cineole, Pinene, Camphene, Isopulegone. | Flavouring agent, carminative, aromatic, stimulant, counter irritant, antiseptic. |
54 | Sandalwood | Lignum Santali, chandan, Yellow Sandalwood. | Dried Heart wood | Santalum album Linn. | Santalaceae | Alpha and Beta Santalol, Santalal, Santene, Santenone, Santalone, Santalene, Teresantol. | As a perfume in cosmetics and incense sticks. |
55 | Lemon oil | Citrus oil | Vol.oil from fresh peels of ripe fruit | Citrus limonis (L) | Rutaceae | Lemonene, Citral, Citronellal. | Flavouring agent, perfume. |
56 | Lemon grass oil | East Indian Lemon Grass Oil, Gavati Chaha. | Vol.oil from leaves and aerial parts | Cymbopogon flexuousus | Graminae | Citral, Geraniol, Nerol. | Flavouring agent, perfume. |
57 | Orange oil | Sweet Orange Oil, Oleum Auranti | Vol.oil from fresh orange peels | Citrus sinensis (L) | Rutaceae | Limonene, Cetronellal, Citral, Decanal. | Flavouring agent, perfume. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
197
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
58 | Acacia (Indian gum) | Gum Acacia, Gum Arabic, Babul, Indian Gum. | Dried gum from stem | Acacia arabica Wild. | Leguminaceae | Arabin, Arabic acid. | As a demulscent, suspending agent, emulsifying agent, binding agent. |
59 | Guar Gum | Guar Flour, Jaguar Gum | Powder of endosperm of seed | Cyamopsis tetragonolobus Linn. | Leguminaceae | Guaran | Bulk laxative, appetite supres-sant, and binding and disintegrating agent, in peptic ulcer. |
60 | Honey | Madhu, Mel, Madh, honey purified. | Sugar secretion from honey comb by the bees | Apis mellifica | Apidae | Invert Sugar | Demulscent, sweetening agent, good nutirent, antiseptic, in cough mixtures. |
61 | Starch | Amylum | Polysaccharide granules | Grains of Maize and Wheat, Zea mays Linn. | Graminae | Alpha and Beta Amylose, Amylopectin. | Nutritive, demulscent, protective, absorbent, in dusting powders, as a disintegrating agent. |
198
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
63 | Tragacanth | Tragacantha, Gum Tragacanth | Dried Gum Exudate from stems | Astragalus gummifer Labill. | Leguminaceae | Bassorin, Tragacanthin, Tragacanthic acid. | Demulscent, emollient, in confectionary, as a thickening agent, sus-pend- ing agent, emulsifying agent, binding agent. |
64 | Agar | Japanese-Isinglass, Agar-Agar | Dried Gelatinous substance | Gelidium amansii | Rhodophyceae | Agarose, Agaropectin. | Bulk laxative, emulsifying agent, in preparation of jellies and confectionery items |
65 | Arachis oil | Groundnut oil, Peanut oil, Sweet oil | Fixed oil from seed kernels | Arachis hypogeal Linn. | Leguminaceae | Arachidic acid, Oleic acid, Linoleic acid, Stearic acid, Lignoseric acid, Palmitic acid. | As a solvent for intramuscular injections, in preparation of liniment and soaps, as a lubricant, as an edible oil. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
199
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
66 | Olive oil | Oleum olivae | Fixed oil from ripe fruits | Olea europea Linn. | Oleaceae | Olein, Linolein, Palmitin. | Emollient and soothing agent, in eczema and psoriasis, as a nutritive, demulscent, mild laxative. |
67 | Lanolin | Adeps Lanae, Hydrous wool fat. | From wool of the sheeps | Ovis aries Linn. | Bovidae | Cholesterol, Isocholesterol. | As an ointment base, in creams and cosmetic preparations |
68 | Yellow Beeswax | Cera-flava, Beeswax | Purified wax from honey comb of the bees | Apis mellifica | Apidae | Myricin, Cerotic acid, Cerolein. | In preparation of ointment, plasters, polishes, candles, moulds, lipsticks. |
69 | Pectin | — | Carbohydrate product from Citrus peels | Citrus limonis | Rutaceae | D-galactouronic acid, Galactouronic acid, Arabinose, Galactose. | As absorbent in diarrhoea, as a haemostatic, as emulsifying agent, thickening agent, in cosmetic preparations. |
200
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
70 | Gelatin | — | Collagenous material | Animal tissues | — | Glutin (protien) | Dietary supplement, in preparation of ice-cream, in confectionery, in cosmetics. |
71 | Kaolin | China clay, porcelain clay | Powder | From native hydrated aluminium silicate | — | Kaolin | As an adsorbent, in dusting powders, as a clarifying agent, in cosmetics. |
72 | Liquorice | Glycyrrhiza, Jasthi-Madhu, Mulethi, Liquorice roots | Dried roots and stolons | Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. | Leguminaceae | Glycyrrhizin, Glycyrrhizenic acid, Glycyrrhetinic acid, Liquiritin, Aspargine. | Demulscent. expectorant, flavouring agent, antispasmodic, in Addison’s disease, in peptic ulcer, as anti-inflammatory. |
73 | Picrorrhiza | Indian Gentian, Kutki, Katki, Kadu. | Dried rhizomes | Picrorrhiza kurroa | Scrophulariaceae | Kutkin, Picroside-I, Picroside-II, Kutkoside. | Bitter tonic, febrifuge, laxative, anti-bacterial, in jaundice |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
201
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
74 | Linseed | Flax seeds, Linum, Jovas. | Fixed oil from dried ripe seeds | Linum usitatissimum Linn. | Linaceae | Linmarine, Linoleic acid, Squalene, Tocopherol, | Used in liniment and lotions, in scabies and skin disorders, as a nutritive and emollient, in paints and varnishes. |
75 | Shankhpushpi | Shankh Vel, Shankh Phuli, | Aerial parts | Canscora decussta | Gentionaceae | Oleo-resin, Tri-trepenes, Xanthones. | Nervine tonic, in epilepsy, nervous disability. |
76 | Garlic | Allium, Lahsun, Lasan | Bulbs | Allium sativum Linn. | Liliaceae | Allicin, Allilin, | Carminative, expectorant, aphrodiasic, anthelmintic, rubefacient, disinfectant, and reduce blood pressure, antibacterial, as a condiment. |
202
Pharmacognosy
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
77 | Dioscorea | Yam, Rheumatism root | Dried tubers | Dioscorea deltoidea | Dioscoreaceae | Diosogenin, Sapogenin. | In synthesis of corticosteroids, sex hormones, in contraceptives, in rheumatic arthritis. |
79 | Shatavari | Shatmuli | Dried roots and leaves | Asparagus racemosus Wild. | Liliaceae | Shataverin- I, II, III, IV. Sarspogenin | Galactogogue, tonic, diuretic, in rheumatism, in nervine disorders, for safe delivery, |
80 | Tobacco | Tambaku, Tamak, Tumbakhu | Dried leaves | Nicotinia tabacum | Solanaceae | Nicotine, Nornicotine, Anabasine | Insecticide, CNS stimulant. |
81 | Pyrethrum | Insect flowers, natural pyrethrum. | Dried flower heads | Chrysanthemum cinerariefolium | Compositeae | Pyrethin-I, II. Cinerin-I, II. Jasmolin-I, II. Chrysanthenic acid, Cinerolone, Jasmoline. | Contact insecticide, used in mosquito coils and insect repellents. |
Summary Chart of Crude Drugs
203
Contd...
Sr. No. | Crude drug | Synonyms | Part of plant | Biological source | Family | Chemical constituents | Uses |
82 | Cotton | Gossypol, cotton wool, absorbent cotton, surgical cotton. | Trichomes or hairs of the seeds | Gossypium barbadense | Malvaceae | Cellulose | Surgical dressing, as a filter media, as insulator. |
83 | Wool | — | Fibres from the fleece of sheep | Ovis aries | Bovidae | Keratin, Cystine. | Surgical dressing, ligature, suture, filter medium, in crepe bandages. |
84 | Silk | — | Fibres from the cocoons | Bombyx mori | Bombycidae | Fibroin | Surgical dressing, ligature, suture, manufacturing of sieves, in textile industries. |
85 | Jute | Gunny | Phloem fibres of stem bark | Corchorus capsularis Linn. | Tiliaceae | True cellulose, hemicellulose, Lignin. | In manufacture of tows, padding splints, filtering media, preparation of coarse bags. |
204
Pharmacognosy
Umbelliferae : Fennel, Coriander, Asafoetida, Ajowan
Leguminaceae : Acacia, Catechu, Liquorice, Senna,
Pterocarpus, Tragacanth, Arachis oil
Solanaceae : Belladona, Ashwagandha, Datura Starch,
Hyoscymus, Tobacco
Liliaceae : Aloe, Garlic, Colchicum, Shatavari
Zingiberaceae : Ginger, Cardamom, Turmeric
Apocyanaceae : Rauwolfia, Vinca
Schophulariacece : Digitalis, Picrorrhiza
Rutaceae : Lemon, Orange, Pectin
Rubiaceae : Cinchona , Ipecacaunha
Labiate : Mentha, Tulsi
Euphorbiaceae : Digitalis, Picrorrhiza
Apidae : Honey, Beeswax
Burseraceae : Guggul, Myrrh
Graminae : Ergot, Lemon grass oil
Polygonaceae : Rhubarb
Zygophyllaceae : Gokharu
Combrataceae : Arjuna
Hypocraceae : Ergot
Acanthaceae : Vasaka
Ranunculaceae : Aconite
Gentionaceae : Shankhpushpi
Lauraceae : Cinnamon
Malvaceae : Cotton
205
206 Pharmacognosy
Myristicaceae : Nutmeg
Caricaceae : Papaya
Styraceae : Benzoin
Papaveraceae : Opium
Plantaginaceae : Isapgula
Piperaceae : Black Pepper
Myritaceae : Clove
Ephedriaceae : Ephedra
Cannabinaceae : Cannabis/Hemp
Loganiaceae : Nuxvomica
Flacourtiaceae : Chaulmoogra oil
Asclepidaceae : Gymnema
Meliaceae : Neem
Santalaceae : Sandalwood
Rhodophyaceae : Agar
Oleaceae : Olive oil
Bovidae : Lanolin, Wool
Dioscoreaceae : Dioscorea
Linaceae : Linseed
Compositeae : Pyrethrum
Tiliaceae : Jute
Bombycidae : Silk